The influence of racial embodiment on racial bias in immersive virtual environments

Social Influence

Volumn 4, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 231-248

  Groom, Victoria ^a   Bailenson, Jeremy N ^a   Nass, Clifford ^a  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Embodiment; Implicit associations; Prejudice; Stereotypes; Virtual reality

Indexed keywords

EID: 68249158000     PISSN: 15534510     EISSN: 15534529     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/15534510802643750     Document Type: Article

References (37)

1. AAPA (1996). Statement on biological aspects of race. American Association of Physical Anthropologists, 101 (4), 569-570.
2. Allport, G.W. (1985). The historical background of social psychology. InG.Lindzey & E.Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 1-46). New York: Random House.
3. Allport, G. W., & Postman, L. J. (1947). The psychology of rumor. New York: Russell & Russell.
4. Ames, D. L., Jenkins, A. C., Banaji, M. R., & Mitchell, J. P. (2008). Taking another person's perspective increases self-referential neural processing. Psychological Science, 19 (7), 642-644.
5. Bailenson, J. N., Blascovich, J., Beall, A. C., & Loomis, J. M. (2003). Interpersonal distance in immersive virtual environments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1-15.
6. Bargh, J. A. (1994). The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, efficiency, intention, and control in social cognition. Handbook of social cognition, 2, 1-40.
7. Bargh, J. A. (1999). The cognitive monster: The case against the controllability of automatic stereotype effects. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories in social psychology (pp. 361-382). New York: Guilford Press.
8. Bargh, J. A., Chen, M., & Burrows, L. (1996). Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71 (2), 230-244.
9. Blascovich, J., Loomis, J., Beall, A. C., Swinth, K., Hoyt, C., & Bailenson, J. N. (2002). Immersive virtual environment technology as a methodological tool for social psychology. Psychological Inquiry, 13 (2), 103-124.
10. Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56 (1), 5-18.
11. Devine, P. G., & Monteith, M. J. (1999). Automaticity and control in stereotyping. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories in social psychology (pp. 339-360). New York: Guilford Press.
12. Donath, J. S. (2001). Being real. In K. Goldberg (Ed.), The robot in the garden. Telerobotics and telepistemology in the age of the Internet Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
13. Dotsch, R., & Wigboldus, D. H. J. (2008). Virtual prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44 (4), 1194-1198.
14. Eastwick, P. W., & Gardner, W. L. (2008). Is it a game? Evidence for social influence in the virtual world. Social Influence, 1, 1-15.
15. Eberhardt, J. L., Goff, P. A., Purdie, V. J., & Davies, P. G. (2004). Seeing black: Race, crime, and visual processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87 (6), 876-893.
16. Galinsky, A. D., & Ku, G. (2004). The effects of perspective taking on prejudice: The moderating role of self-evaluation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30 (5), 594.
17. Galinsky, A. D., & Moskowitz, G. B. (2000). Perspective taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78 (4), 708-724.
18. Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74 (6), 1464-1480.
19. Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85 (2), 197-216.
20. Hamilton, D. L., & Sherman, J. W. (1994). Stereotypes. In R. S. Wyer Jr. & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 2, pp. 1-68). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
21. Hoyt, C. L., Blascovich, J., & Swinth, K. R. (2003). Social inhibition in immersive virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments, 12 (2), 183-195.
22. Ito, T. A., & Urland, G. R. (2003). Race and gender on the brain: Electrocortical measures of attention to the race and gender of multiply categorizable individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85 (4), 616-626.
23. McCall, C., Blascovich, J., Young, A., & Persky, S. (in press). Proxemic behaviors as predictors of aggression towards black (but not white) males in an immersive virtual environment. Social Influence.
24. McConahay, J. B. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 91-125). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
25. Miller, G. (2007). The promise of parallel universes. Science, 317 (5842), 1341-1343.
26. Montepare, J. M., & Opeyo, A. (2002). The relative salience of physiognomic cues in differentiating faces: A methodological tool. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 26 (1), 43-59.
27. Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002). Harvesting implicit group attitudes and beliefs from a demonstration website. Group Dynamics, 6 (1), 101-115.
28. Persky, S., & Blascovich, J. (2008). Immersive virtual video game play and presence: Influences on aggressive feelings and behavior. Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments, 17 (1), 57-72.
29. Petrova, P. K., & Cialdini, R. B. (2008). Evoking the imagination as a strategy of influence. In C. P. Haugtvedt, P. M. Herr & F. R. Kardes (Eds.), Handbook of consumer psychology (pp. 505-524). New York: Psychology Press.
30. Reeves, B., & Nass, C. (1996). The media equation: How people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places. New York: Cambridge University Press.
31. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
32. Saucier, D. A., & Miller, C. T. (2003). The persuasiveness of racial arguments as a subtle measure of racism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29 (10), 1303.
33. Turkle, S. (1995). Life on the screen: Identity in the age of the internet. New York: Simon & Schuster.
34. Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K., & Choi, W. (2000). Cyberostracism: Effects of being ignored over the Internet. Journal of Personal and Social Psychology, 79 (5), 748-762.
35. Yee, N., & Bailenson, J. (2006, August 24-26). Walk a mile in digital shoes: The impact of embodied perspective taking on the reduction of negative stereotyping in immersive virtual environments, Paper presented at PRESENCE: The 9th Annual International Workshop on Presence, Cleveland, Ohio, USA.
36. Yee, N., & Bailenson, J. N. (2007). The Proteus effect: The effect of transformed selfrepresentation on behavior. Human Communication Research, 33 (3), 271-290.
37. Zadro, L., Williams, K. D., & Richardson, R. (2004). How low can you go? Ostracism by a computer lowers belonging, control, self-esteem, and meaningful existence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 560-56