Approaches to malaria vaccine development using the retrospectroscope

Infection and Immunity

Volumn 77, Issue 8, 2009, Pages 3130-3140

  Sardá, Vanessa ^a   Kaslow, David C ^b   Williamson, Kim C ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO   (United States)

^b MERCK RESEARCH LABORATORIES   (United States)

^c LOYOLA UNIVERSITY CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

MALARIA VACCINE;

DISEASE TRANSMISSION; DRUG RESEARCH; HUMAN; HUMORAL IMMUNITY; MALARIA; PATHOGENESIS; PLASMODIUM MALARIAE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SHORT SURVEY; SPECTROSCOPY;

ANIMALS; BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; HUMANS; MALARIA; MALARIA VACCINES; PLASMODIUM;

EID: 67651202589     PISSN: 00199567     EISSN: 10985522     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1128/IAI.00122-09     Document Type: Short Survey

References (114)

1. Abdulla, S., R. Oberholzer, O. Juma, S. Kubhoja, F. Machera, C. Membi, and S. Omari. 2008. Safety and immunogenicity of RTS,S/AS02D malaria vaccine in infants. N. Engl. J. Med. 359:2533-2544.
2. Angov, E., B. M. Aufiero, A. M. Turgeon, M. Van Handenhove, C. F. Ockenhouse, K. E. Kester, D. S. Walsh, J. S. McBride, M. C. Dubois, J. Cohen, J. D. Haynes, K. H. Eckels, D. G. Heppner, W. R. Ballou, C. L. Diggs, and J. A. Lyon. 2003. Development and pre-clinical analysis of a Plasmodium falciparum merozoite surface protein-142 malaria vaccine. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 128:195-204.
3. Aponte, J. J., P. Aide, M. Renom, I. Mandomando, Q. Bassat, J. Sacarlal, M. N. Manaca, S. Lafuente, A. Barbosa, A. Leach, M. Lievens, J. Vekemans, B. Sigauque, M. C. Dubois, M. A. Demoitie, M. Sillman, B. Savarese, J. G. McNeil, E. Macete, W. R. Ballou, J. Cohen, and P. L. Alonso. 2007. Safety of the RTS,S/AS02D candidate malaria vaccine in infants living in a highly endemic area of Mozambique: a double blind randomised controlled phase I/IIb trial. Lancet 370:1543-1551.
4. Baird, J. K., Krisin, M. J. Barcus, I. R., Elyazar, M. J. Bangs, J. D. Maguire, D. J. Fryauff, T. L. Richie, Sekartuti, and W. Kalalo. 2003. Onset of clinical immunity to Plasmodium falciparum among Javanese migrants to Indonesian Papua. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 97:557-564.
5. Barfod, L., N. L. Bernasconi, M. Dahlback, D. Jarrossay, P. H. Andersen, A. Salanti, M. F. Ofori, L. Turner, M. Resende, M. A. Nielsen, T. G. Theander, F. Sallusto, A. Lanzavecchia, and L. Hviid. 2007. Human pregnancy-associated malaria-specific B cells target polymorphic, conformational epitopes in VAR2CSA. Mol. Microbiol. 63:335-347.
6. Baruch, D. I., B. L. Pasloske, H. B. Singh, X. Bi, X. C. Ma, M. Feldman, T. F. Taraschi, and R. J. Howard. 1995. Cloning the P. falciparum gene encoding PfEMP1, a malarial variant antigen and adherence receptor on the surface of parasitized human erythrocytes. Cell 82:77-87.
7. Bejon, P., J. A. Berkley, T. Mwangi, E. Ogada, I. Mwangi, K. Maitland, T. Williams, J. A. Scott, M. English, B. S. Lowe, N. Peshu, C. R. Newton, and K. Marsh. 2007. Defining childhood severe falciparum malaria for intervention studies. PLoS Med. 4:e251.
8. Bejon, P., J. Lusingu, A. Olotu, A. Leach, M. Lievens, J. Vekemans, S. Mshamu, T. Lang, J. Gould, M. C. Dubois, M. A. Demoitie, J. F. Stallaert, P. Vansadia, T. Carter, P. Njuguna, K. O. Awuondo, A. Malabeja, O. Abdul, S. Gesase, N. Mturi, C. J. Drakeley, B. Savarese, T. Villafana, W. R. Ballou, J. Cohen, E. M. Riley, M. M. Lemnge, K. Marsh, and L. von Seidlein. 2008. Efficacy of RTS,S/AS01E vaccine against malaria in children 5 to 17 months of age. N. Engl. J. Med. 359:2521-2532.
9. Blackman, M. J., H. G. Heidrich, S. Donachie, J. S. McBride, and A. A. Holder. 1990. A single fragment of a malaria merozoite surface protein remains on the parasite during red cell invasion and is the target of invasion-inhibiting antibodies. J. Exp. Med. 172:379-382.
10. Bockhorst, J., F. Lu, J. H. Janes, J. Keebler, B. Gamain, P. Awadalla, X. Z. Su, R. Samudrala, N. Jojic, and J. D. Smith. 2007. Structural polymorphism and diversifying selection on the pregnancy malaria vaccine candidate VAR2CSA. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 155:103-112.
11. Bouchaud, O., M. Cot, S. Kony, R. Durand, R. Schiemann, P. Ralaimazava, J. P. Coulaud, J. Le Bras, and P. Deloron. 2005. Do African immigrants living in France have long-term malarial immunity? Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 72:21-25.
12. Bouharoun-Tayoun, H., P. Attanath, A. Sabchareon, T. Chongsuphajaisiddhi, and P. Druilhe. 1990. Antibodies that protect humans against Plasmodium falciparum blood stages do not on their own inhibit parasite growth and invasion in vitro, but act in cooperation with monocytes. J. Exp. Med. 172:1633-1641.
13. Burghaus, P. A., and A. A. Holder. 1994. Expression of the 19-kilodalton carboxy-terminal fragment of the Plasmodium falciparum merozoite surface protein-1 in Escherichia coli as a correctly folded protein. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 64:165-169.
14. Carter, R., and D. H. Chen. 1976. Malaria transmission blocked by immunisation with gametes of the malaria parasite. Nature 263:57-60.
15. Chang, S. P., H. L. Gibson, C. T. Lee-Ng, P. J. Barr, and G. S. Hui. 1992. A carboxyl-terminal fragment of Plasmodium falciparum gp195 expressed by a recombinant baculovirus induces antibodies that completely inhibit parasite growth. J. Immunol. 149:548-555.
16. Chitnis, C. E., and L. H. Miller. 1994. Identification of the erythrocyte binding domains of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium knowlesi proteins involved in erythrocyte invasion. J. Exp. Med. 180:497-506.
17. Ciuca, M., L. Ballif, and M. Chelarescu-Vieru. 1934. Immunity in malaria. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 27:619-622.
18. Clyde, D. F. 1975. Immunization of man against falciparum and vivax malaria by use of attenuated sporozoites. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 24:397-401.
19. Clyde, D. F., H. Most, V. C. McCarthy, and J. P. Vanderberg. 1973. Immunization of man against sporozoite-induced falciparum malaria. Am. J. Med. Sci. 266:169-177.
20. Cockburn, I. A., and F. Zavala. 2007. T cell memory in malaria. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 19:424-429.
21. Cohen, S., I. A. McGregor, and S. Carrington. 1961. Gamma-globulin and acquired immunity to human malaria. Nature 192:733-737.
22. Colbourne, M. J. 1955. Malaria in Gold Coast students on their return from the United Kingdom. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 49:483-487.
23. Collins, W. E., and G. M. Jeffery. 1999. A retrospective examination of secondary sporozoite- and trophozoite-induced infections with Plasmodium falciparum: development of parasitologic and clinical immunity following secondary infection. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 61:20-35.
24. Collins, W. E., and G. M. Jeffery. 1999. A retrospective examination of sporozoite- and trophozoite-induced infections with Plasmodium falciparum in patients previously infected with heterologous species of Plasmodium: effect on development of parasitologic and clinical immunity. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 61:36-43.
25. Comore, J. H. 1977. Retrospectroscope: insights into medical discovery. Von Gehr Press, Menlo Park, CA.
26. Couper, K. N., D. G. Blount, and E. M. Riley. 2008. IL-10: the master regulator of immunity to infection. J. Immunol. 180:5771-5777.
27. Cowman, A. F., and B. S. Crabb. 2006. Invasion of red blood cells by malaria parasites. Cell 124:755-766.
28. Crabb, B. S., and A. F. Cowman. 1996. Characterization of promoters and stable transfection by homologous and nonhomologous recombination in Plasmodium falciparum. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:7289-7294.
29. Dame, J. B., J. L. Williams, T. F. McCutchan, J. L. Weber, R. A. Wirtz, W. T. Hockmeyer, W. L. Maloy, J. D. Haynes, I. Schneider, D. Roberts, et al. 1984. Structure of the gene encoding the immunodominant surface antigen on the sporozoite of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Science 225:593-599.
30. Deans, J. A., T. Alderson, A. W. Thomas, G. H. Mitchell, E. S. Lennox, and S. Cohen. 1982. Rat monoclonal antibodies which inhibit the in vitro multiplication of Plasmodium knowlesi. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 49:297-309.
31. Dicko, A., I. Sagara, R. D. Ellis, K. Miura, O. Guindo, B. Kamate, M. Sogoba, M. B. Niambelé, M. Sissoko, M. Baby, A. Dolo, G. E. D. Mullen, M. P. Fay, M. Pierce, D. A. Diallo, A. Saul, L. H. Miller, and O. K. Doumbo. 2008. Phase 1 study of a combination AMA1 blood stage malaria vaccine in Malian children. PLoS ONE 3:e1563.
32. Dinglasan, R. R., A. Alaganan, A. K. Ghosh, A. Saito, T. H. van Kuppevelt, and M. Jacobs-Lorena. 2007. Plasmodium falciparum ookinetes require mosquito midgut chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans for cell invasion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104:15882-15887.
33. Doolan, D. L., Y. Mu, B. Unal, S. Sundaresh, S. Hirst, C. Valdez, A. Randall, D. Molina, X. Liang, D. A. Freilich, J. A. Oloo, P. L. Blair, J. C. Aguiar, P. Baldi, D. H. Davies, and P. L. Felgner. 2008. Profiling humoral immune responses to P. falciparum infection with protein microarrays. Proteomics 8:4680-4694.
34. Drakeley, C. J., L. Mulder, T. Tchuinkam, S. Gupta, R. Sauerwein, and G. A. Targett. 1998. Transmission-blocking effects of sera from malaria-exposed individuals on Plasmodium falciparum isolates from gametocyte carriers. Parasitology 116(Pt. 5):417-423.
35. Duffy, P. E., and D. C. Kaslow. 1997. A novel malaria protein, Pfs28, and Pfs25 are genetically linked and synergistic as falciparum malaria transmission-blocking vaccines. Infect. Immun. 65:1109-1113.
36. Dutta, S., P. V. Lalitha, L. A. Ware, A. Barbosa, J. K. Moch, M. A. Vassell, B. B. Fileta, S. Kitov, N. Kolodny, D. G. Heppner, J. D. Haynes, and D. E. Lanar. 2002. Purification, characterization, and immunogenicity of the refolded ectodomain of the Plasmodium falciparum apical membrane antigen 1 expressed in Escherichia coli. Infect. Immun. 70:3101-3110.
37. Edozien, J. C., H. M. Gilles, and I. O. K. Udeozo. 1962. Adult and cordblood gamma-globulin and immunity to malaria in Nigerians. Lancet ii:951-955.
38. Edstein, M. D., B. M. Kotecka, K. L. Anderson, D. J. Pombo, D. E. Kyle, K. H. Rieckmann, and M. F. Good. 2005. Lengthy antimalarial activity of atovaquone in human plasma following atovaquone-proguanil administration. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49:4421-4422.
39. Elliott, S. R., T. P. Spurck, J. M. Dodin, A. G. Maier, T. S. Voss, F. Yosaatmadja, P. D. Payne, G. I. McFadden, A. F. Cowman, S. J. Rogerson, L. Schofield, and G. V. Brown. 2007. Inhibition of dendritic cell maturation by malaria is dose dependent and does not require Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1. Infect. Immun. 75:3621-3632.
40. Enea, V., J. Ellis, F. Zavala, D. E. Arnot, A. Asavanich, A. Masuda, I. Quakyi, and R. S. Nussenzweig. 1984. DNA cloning of Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite gene: amino acid sequence of repetitive epitope. Science 225:628-630.
41. Freeman, R. R., A. J. Trejdosiewicz, and G. A. Cross. 1980. Protective monoclonal antibodies recognising stage-specific merozoite antigens of a rodent malaria parasite. Nature 284:366-368.
42. Fried, M., F. Nosten, A. Brockman, B. J. Brabin, and P. E. Duffy. 1998. Maternal antibodies block malaria. Nature 395:851-852.
43. Gardner, M. J., N. Hall, E. Fung, O. White, M. Berriman, R. W. Hyman, J. M. Carlton, A. Pain, K. E. Nelson, S. Bowman, I. T. Paulsen, K. James, J. A. Eisen, K. Rutherford, S. L. Salzberg, A. Craig, S. Kyes, M. S. Chan, V. Nene, S. J. Shallom, B. Suh, J. Peterson, S. Angiuoli, M. Pertea, J. Allen, et al. 2002. Genome sequence of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Nature 419:498-511.
44. Genton, B., I. Betuela, I. Felger, F. Al-Yaman, R. F. Anders, A. Saul, L. Rare, M. Baisor, K. Lorry, G. V. Brown, D. Pye, D. O. Irving, T. A. Smith, H. P. Beck, and M. P. Alpers. 2002. A recombinant blood-stage malaria vaccine reduces Plasmodium falciparum density and exerts selective pressure on parasite populations in a phase 1-2b trial in Papua New Guinea. J. Infect. Dis. 185:820-827.
45. Ghumra, A., J. P. Semblat, R. S. McIntosh, A. Raza, I. B. Rasmussen, R. Braathen, F. E. Johansen, I. Sandlie, P. K. Mongini, J. A. Rowe, and R. J. Pleass. 2008. Identification of residues in the Cmu4 domain of polymeric IgM essential for interaction with Plasmodium falciparum erthrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1). J. Immunol. 181:1988-2000.
46. Graves, P. M., R. Carter, T. R. Burkot, I. A. Quakyi, and N. Kumar. 1988. Antibodies to Plasmodium falciparum gamete surface antigens in Papua New Guinea sera. Parasite Immunol. 10:209-218.
47. Gray, J. C., P. H. Corran, E. Mangia, M. W. Gaunt, Q. Li, K. K. Tetteh, S. D. Polley, D. J. Conway, A. A. Holder, T. Bacarese-Hamilton, E. M. Riley, and A. Crisanti. 2007. Profiling the antibody immune response against blood stage malaria vaccine candidates. Clin. Chem. 53:1244-1253.
48. Gwadz, R. W. 1976. Successful immunization against the sexual stages of Plasmodium gallinaceum. Science 193:1150-1151.
49. Haldar, K., S. C. Murphy, D. A. Milner, and T. E. Taylor. 2007. Malaria: mechanisms of erythrocytic infection and pathological correlates of severe disease. Annu. Rev. Pathol. 2:217-249.
50. Hall, R., J. E. Hyde, M. Goman, D. L. Simmons, I. A. Hope, M. Mackay, J. Scaife, B. Merkli, R. Richle, and J. Stocker. 1984. Major surface antigen gene of a human malaria parasite cloned and expressed in bacteria. Nature 311:379-382.
51. Hoffman, S. L., E. D. Franke, M. R. Hollingdale, and P. Druilhe. 1996. Attacking the infected hepatocyte, p. 35-75. In S. L. Hoffman (ed.), Malaria vaccine development. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
52. Hoffman, S. L., L. M. Goh, T. C. Luke, I. Schneider, T. P. Le, D. L. Doolan, J. Sacci, P. de la Vega, M. Dowler, C. Paul, D. M. Gordon, J. A. Stoute, L. W. Church, M. Sedegah, D. G. Heppner, W. R. Ballou, and T. L. Richie. 2002. Protection of humans against malaria by immunization with radiation-attenuated Plasmodium falciparum sporozoites. J. Infect. Dis. 185:1155-1164.
53. Holder, A. A. 1996. Preventing merozoite invasion of erythrocytes, p. 77-104. In S. L. Hoffman (ed.), Malaria vaccine development. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC.
54. Kaslow, D. C., I. A. Quakyi, C. Syin, M. G. Raum, D. B. Keister, J. E. Coligan, T. F. McCutchan, and L. H. Miller. 1988. A vaccine candidate from the sexual stage of human malaria that contains EGF-like domains. Nature 333:74-76.
55. Klein, M. M., A. G. Gittis, H. P. Su, M. O. Makobongo, J. M. Moore, S. Singh, L. H. Miller, and D. N. Garboczi. 2008. The cysteine-rich interdomain region from the highly variable Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein-1 exhibits a conserved structure. PLoS Pathog. 4:e1000147.
56. Kraemer, S. M., S. A. Kyes, G. Aggarwal, A. L. Springer, S. O. Nelson, Z. Christodoulou, L. M. Smith, W. Wang, E. Levin, C. I. Newbold, P. J. Myler, and J. D. Smith. 2007. Patterns of gene recombination shape var gene repertoires in Plasmodium falciparum: comparisons of geographically diverse isolates. BMC Genomics 8:45.
57. Kubler-Kielb, J., F. Majadly, Y. Wu, D. L. Narum, C. Guo, L. H. Miller, J. Shiloach, J. B. Robbins, and R. Schneerson. 2007. Long-lasting and transmission-blocking activity of antibodies to Plasmodium falciparum elicited in mice by protein conjugates of Pfs25. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104:293-298.
58. Kyes, S. A., S. M. Kraemer, and J. D. Smith. 2007. Antigenic variation in Plasmodium falciparum: gene organization and regulation of the var multigene family. Eukaryot. Cell 6:1511-1520.
59. Labaied, M., A. Harupa, R. F. Dumpit, I. Coppens, S. A. Mikolajczak, and S. H. Kappe. 2007. Plasmodium yoelii sporozoites with simultaneous deletion of P52 and P36 are completely attenuated and confer sterile immunity against infection. Infect. Immun. 75:3758-3768.
60. Langhorne, J., F. M. Ndungu, A. M. Sponaas, and K. Marsh. 2008. Immunity to malaria: more questions than answers. Nat. Immunol. 9:725-732.
61. Magdelaine-Beuzelin, C., Q. Kaas, V. Wehbi, M. Ohresser, R. Jefferis, M. P. Lefranc, and H. Watier. 2007. Structure-function relationships of the variable domains of monoclonal antibodies approved for cancer treatment. Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol. 64:210-225.
62. Malkin, E. M., A. P. Durbin, D. J. Diemert, J. Sattabongkot, Y. Wu, K. Miura, C. A. Long, L. Lambert, A. P. Miles, J. Wang, A. Stowers, L. H. Miller, and A. Saul. 2005. Phase 1 vaccine trial of Pvs25H: a transmission blocking vaccine for Plasmodium vivax malaria. Vaccine 23:3131-3138.
63. Marsh, K., D. Forster, C. Waruiru, I. Mwangi, M. Winstanley, V. Marsh, C. Newton, P. Winstanley, P. Warn, N. Peshu, et al. 1995. Indicators of life-threatening malaria in African children. N. Engl. J. Med. 332:1399-1404.
64. Marsh, K., and S. Kinyanjui. 2006. Immune effector mechanisms in malaria. Parasite Immunol. 28:51-60.
65. Mascarello, M., B. Allegranzi, A. Angheben, M. Anselmi, E. Concia, S. Lagana, L. Manzoli, S. Marocco, G. Monteiro, and Z. Bisoffi. 2008. Imported malaria in adults and children: epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 380 consecutive cases observed in Verona, Italy. J. Travel Med. 15:229-236.
66. McGregor, I. A., S. P. Carrington, and S. Cohen. 1963. Treatment of East African P. falciparum malaria with West African human gamma-globulin. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 57:170-175.
67. Mendis, K. N., and G. A. Targett. 1979. Immunisation against gametes and asexual erythrocytic stages of a rodent malaria parasite. Nature 277:389-391.
68. Michon, P., T. Fraser, and J. H. Adams. 2000. Naturally acquired and vaccine-elicited antibodies block erythrocyte cytoadherence of the Plasmodium vivax Duffy binding protein. Infect. Immun. 68:3164-3171.
69. Mikolajczak, S. A., H. Silva-Rivera, X. Peng, A. S. Tarun, N. Camargo, V. Jacobs-Lorena, T. M. Daly, L. W. Bergman, P. de la Vega, J. Williams, A. S. Aly, and S. H. Kappe. 2008. Distinct malaria parasite sporozoites reveal transcriptional changes that cause differential tissue infection competence in the mosquito vector and mammalian host. Mol. Cell. Biol. 28:6196-6207.
70. Milner, D. A., Jr., J. Montgomery, K. B. Seydel, and S. J. Rogerson. 2008. Severe malaria in children and pregnancy: an update and perspective. Trends Parasitol. 24:590-595.
71. Mitchell, G. H., W. H. Richards, G. A. Butcher, and S. Cohen. 1977. Merozoite vaccination of douroucouli monkeys against falciparum malaria. Lancet i:1335-1338.
72. Mueller, A. K., M. Labaied, S. H. Kappe, and K. Matuschewski. 2005. Genetically modified Plasmodium parasites as a protective experimental malaria vaccine. Nature 433:164-167.
73. Neva, F. A., and H. W. Brown. 1994. Basic clinical parasitology, 6th ed. Appleton and Lange, Norwalk, CT.
74. Nussenzweig, R. S., J. Vanderberg, H. Most, and C. Orton. 1967. Protective immunity produced by the injection of X-irradiated sporozoites of Plasmodium berghei. Nature 216:160-162.
75. Odink, K. G., M. J. Lockyer, S. C. Nicholls, Y. Hillman, R. R. Freeman, and A. A. Holder. 1984. Expression of cloned cDNA for a major surface antigen of Plasmodium falciparum merozoites. FEBS Lett. 173:108-112.
76. Ouédraogo, A. L., P. Schneider, M. de Kruijf, I. Nebie, J. P. Verhave, N. Cuzin-Ouattara, and R. W. Sauerwein. 2007. Age-dependent distribution of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes quantified by Pfs25 real-time QT-NASBA in a cross-sectional study in Burkina Faso. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 76:626-630.
77. Outchkourov, N. S., W. Roeffen, A. Kaan, J. Jansen, A. Luty, D. Schuiffel, G. J. van Gemert, M. van de Vegte-Bolmer, R. W. Sauerwein, and H. G. Stunnenberg. 2008. Correctly folded Pfs48/45 protein of Plasmodium falciparum elicits malaria transmission-blocking immunity in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105:4301-4305.
78. Overstreet, M. G., I. A. Cockburn, Y. C. Chen, and F. Zavala. 2008. Protective CD8 T cells against Plasmodium liver stages: immunobiology of an 'unnatural' immune response. Immunol. Rev. 225:272-283.
79. Owusu-Agyei, S., K. A. Koram, J. K. Baird, G. C. Utz, F. N. Binka, F. K. Nkrumah, D. J. Fryauff, and S. L. Hoffman. 2001. Incidence of symptomatic and asymptomatic Plasmodium falciparum infection following curative therapy in adult residents of northern Ghana. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 65:197-203.
80. Parham, P. 2005. The immune system, 2nd ed. Garland Science, New York, NY.
81. Perrin, L. H., E. Ramirez, P. H. Lambert, and P. A. Miescher. 1981. Inhibition of P. falciparum growth in human erythrocytes by monoclonal antibodies. Nature 289:301-303.
82. Pleass, R. J., and A. A. Holder. 2005. Opinion: antibody-based therapies for malaria. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 3:893-899.
83. Pombo, D. J., G. Lawrence, C. Hirunpetcharat, C. Rzepczyk, M. Bryden, N. Cloonan, K. Anderson, Y. Mahakunkijcharoen, L. B. Martin, D. Wilson, S. Elliott, S. Elliott, D. P. Eisen, J. B. Weinberg, A. Saul, and M. F. Good. 2002. Immunity to malaria after administration of ultra-low doses of red cells infected with Plasmodium falciparum. Lancet 360:610-617.
84. Premawansa, S., A. Gamage-Mendis, L. Perera, S. Begarnie, K. Mendis, and R. Carter. 1994. Plasmodium falciparum malaria transmission-blocking immunity under conditions of low endemicity as in Sri Lanka. Parasite Immunol. 16:35-42.
85. Qian, F., K. M. Rausch, O. Muratova, H. Zhou, G. Song, A. Diouf, L. Lambert, D. L. Narum, Y. Wu, A. Saul, L. H. Miller, C. A. Long, and G. E. Mullen. 2008. Addition of CpG ODN to recombinant Pseudomonas aeruginosa ExoProtein A conjugates of AMA1 and Pfs25 greatly increases the number of responders. Vaccine 26:2521-2527.
86. Qian, F., Y. Wu, O. Muratova, H. Zhou, G. Dobrescu, P. Duggan, L. Lynn, G. Song, Y. Zhang, K. Reiter, N. MacDonald, D. L. Narum, C. A. Long, L. H. Miller, A. Saul, and G. E. Mullen. 2007. Conjugating recombinant proteins to Pseudomonas aeruginosa ExoProtein A: a strategy for enhancing immunogenicity of malaria vaccine candidates. Vaccine 25:3923-3933.
87. Rener, J., P. M. Graves, R. Carter, J. L. Williams, and T. R. Burkot. 1983. Target antigens of transmission-blocking immunity on gametes of Plasmodium falciparum. J. Exp. Med. 158:976-981.
88. Riley, E. M., S. Wahl, D. J. Perkins, and L. Schofield. 2006. Regulating immunity to malaria. Parasite Immunol. 28:35-49.
89. Roestenberg, M., E. Remarque, E. de Jonge, R. Hermsen, H. Blythman, O. Leroy, E. Imoukhuede, S. Jepsen, O. Ofori-Anyinam, B. Faber, C. H. Kocken, M. Arnold, V. Walraven, K. Teelen, W. Roeffen, Q. de Mast, W. R. Ballou, J. Cohen, M. C. Dubois, S. Ascarateil, A. van der Ven, A. Thomas, and R. Sauerwein. 2008. Safety and immunogenicity of a recombinant Plasmodium falciparum AMA1 malaria vaccine adjuvanted with Alhydrogel, Montanide ISA 720 or AS02. PLoS ONE 3:e3960.
90. Sabchareon, A., T. Burnouf, D. Ouattara, P. Attanath, H. Bouharoun-Tayoun, P. Chantavanich, C. Foucault, T. Chongsuphajaisiddhi, and P. Druilhe. 1991. Parasitologic and clinical human response to immunoglobulin administration in falciparum malaria. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 45:297-308.
91. Sadun, E. H., B. T. Wellde, and R. L. Hickman. 1969. Resistance produced in owl monkeys (Aotus trivirgatus) by inoculation with irradiated Plasmodium falciparum. Mil. Med. 134:1165-1175.
92. Salanti, A., M. Dahlback, L. Turner, M. A. Nielsen, L. Barfod, P. Magistrado, A. T. Jensen, T. Lavstsen, M. F. Ofori, K. Marsh, L. Hviid, and T. G. Theander. 2004. Evidence for the involvement of VAR2CSA in pregnancy-associated malaria. J. Exp. Med. 200:1197-1203.
93. Schneider, D. S., and J. S. Ayres. 2008. Two ways to survive infection: what resistance and tolerance can teach us about treating infectious diseases. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 8:889-895.
94. Siddiqui, W. A., D. W. Taylor, S. C. Kan, K. Kramer, S. M. Richmond-Crum, S. Kotani, T. Shiba, and S. Kusumoto. 1978. Vaccination of experimental monkeys against Plasmodium falciparum: a possible safe adjuvant. Science 201:1237-1239.
95. Singh, A. P., C. A. Buscaglia, Q. Wang, A. Levay, D. R. Nussenzweig, J. R. Walker, E. A. Winzeler, H. Fujii, B. M. Fontoura, and V. Nussenzweig. 2007. Plasmodium circumsporozoite protein promotes the development of the liver stages of the parasite. Cell 131:492-504.
96. Smith, J. D., C. E. Chitnis, A. G. Craig, D. J. Roberts, D. E. Hudsontaylor, D. S. Peterson, R. Pinches, C. I. Newbold, and L. H. Miller. 1995. Switches in expression of Plasmodium falciparum var genes correlate with changes in antigenic and cytoadherent phenotypes of infested erythrocytes. Cell 82:101-110.
97. Soong, L. 2008. Modulation of dendritic cell function by Leishmania parasites. J. Immunol. 180:4355-4360.
98. Stokes, D. E. 1997. Pasteur's quadrant: basic science and technological innovation. Brookings Institution Press, Washington, DC.
99. Stoute, J. A., J. Gombe, M. R. Withers, J. Siangla, D. McKinney, M. Onyango, J. F. Cummings, J. Milman, K. Tucker, L. Soisson, V. A. Stewart, J. A. Lyon, E. Angov, A. Leach, J. Cohen, K. E. Kester, C. F. Ockenhouse, C. A. Holland, C. L. Diggs, J. Wittes, D. G. Heppner, Jr., and M. S. P. M. V. W. Group. 2007. Phase 1 randomized double-blind safety and immunogenicity trial of Plasmodium falciparum malaria merozoite surface protein FMP1 vaccine, adjuvanted with AS02A, in adults in western Kenya. Vaccine 25:176-184.
100. Stoute, J. A., M. Slaoui, D. G. Heppner, P. Momin, K. E. Kester, P. Desmons, B. T. Wellde, N. Garcon, U. Krzych, and M. Marchand, W. R. Ballou, and J. D. Cohen. 1997. A preliminary evaluation of a recombinant circumsporozoite protein vaccine against Plasmodium falciparum malaria. N. Engl. J. Med. 336:86-91.
101. Struik, S. S., and E. M. Riley. 2004. Does malaria suffer from lack of memory? Immunol. Rev. 201:268-290.
102. Su, X. Z., V. M. Heatwole, S. P. Wertheimer, F. Guinet, J. A. Herrfeldt, D. S. Peterson, J. A. Ravetch, and T. E. Wellems. 1995. The large diverse gene family var encodes proteins involved in cytoadherence and antigenic variation of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. Cell 82:89-100.
103. Thera, M. A., O. K. Doumbo, D. Coulibaly, D. A. Diallo, A. K. Kone, A. B. Guindo, K. Traore, A. Dicko, I. Sagara, M. S. Sissoko, M. Baby, M. Sissoko, I. Diarra, A. Niangaly, A. Dolo, M. Daou, S. I. Diawara, D. G. Heppner, V. A. Stewart, E. Angov, E. S. Bergmann-Leitner, D. E. Lanar, S. Dutta, L. Soisson, C. L. Diggs, A. Leach, A. Owusu, M.-C. Dubois, J. Cohen, J. N. Nixon, A. Gregson, S. L. Takala, K. E. Lyke, and C. V. Plowe. 2008. Safety and immunogenicity of an AMA-1 malaria vaccine in Malian adults: results of a phase 1 randomized controlled trial. PLoS ONE 3:e1465.
104. Thomson, J. G. 1933. Immunity in malaria. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 26:483-514.
105. Trimnell, A. R., S. M. Kraemer, S. Mukherjee, D. J. Phippard, J. H. Janes, E. Flamoe, X. Z. Su, P. Awadalla, and J. D. Smith. 2006. Global genetic diversity and evolution of var genes associated with placental and severe childhood malaria. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 148:169-180.
106. Urban, B. C., D. J. Ferguson, A. Pain, N. Willcox, M. Plebanski, J. M. Austyn, and D. J. Roberts. 1999. Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes modulate the maturation of dendritic cells. Nature 400:73-77.
107. van Schaijk, B. C., C. J. Janse, G. J. van Gemert, M. R. van Dijk, A. Gego, J. F. Franetich, M. van de Vegte-Bolmer, S. Yalaoui, O. Silvie, S. L. Hoff- man, A. P. Waters, D. Mazier, R. W. Sauerwein, and S. M. Khan. 2008. Gene disruption of Plasmodium falciparum p52 results in attenuation of malaria liver stage development in cultured primary human hepatocytes. PLoS ONE 3:e3549.
108. Vermeulen, A. N., T. Ponnudurai, P. J. Beckers, J. P. Verhave, M. A. Smits, and J. H. Meuwissen. 1985. Sequential expression of antigens on sexual stages of Plasmodium falciparum accessible to transmission- blocking antibodies in the mosquito. J. Exp. Med. 162:1460-1476.
109. Vignali, D. A., L. W. Collison, and C. J. Workman. 2008. How regulatory T cells work. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 8:523-532.
110. Williamson, K. C., D. B. Keister, O. Muratova, and D. C. Kaslow. 1995. Recombinant Pfs230, a Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte protein, induces antisera that reduce the infectivity of Plasmodium falciparum to mosquitoes. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 75:33-42.
111. Wu, Y., R. D. Ellis, D. Shaffer, E. Fontes, E. M. Malkin, S. Mahanty, M. P. Fay, D. Narum, K. Rausch, A. P. Miles, J. Aebig, A. Orcutt, O. Muratova, G. Song, L. Lambert, D. Zhu, K. Miura, C. Long, A. Saul, L. H. Miller, and A. P. Durbin. 2008. Phase 1 trial of malaria transmission blocking vaccine candidates Pfs25 and Pvs25 formulated with montanide ISA 51. PLoS ONE 3:e2636.
112. Wu, Y., C. D. Sifri, H. H. Lei, X. Z. Su, and T. E. Wellems. 1995. Transfection of Plasmodium falciparum within human red blood cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92:973-977.
113. Wu, Y. M., L. A. Kirkman, and T. E. Wellems. 1996. Transformation of Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasites by homologous integration of plasmids that confer resistance to pyrimethamine. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:1130-1134.
114. Wykes, M. N., and M. F. Good. 2008. What really happens to dendritic cells during malaria? Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 6:864-870.