Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the aquatic environment: Implications for the drinking water industry and global environmental health

Journal of Water and Health

Volumn 7, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 224-243

  Rahman, M F ^a   Yanful, E K ^a   Jasim, S Y ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO   (Canada)

^b Walkerton Clean Water Centre   (Canada)

Author keywords

Advanced ozonation; Drinking water; EDCs; Environmental health; PPCPs

Indexed keywords

2 METHYLISOBORNEOL; 4 NONYLPHENOL; 4,4' ISOPROPYLIDENEDIPHENOL; ATRAZINE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BEZAFIBRATE; CARBAMAZEPINE; CIPROFLOXACIN; DERMATOLOGICAL AGENT; DIAZEPAM; DICLOFENAC; DRINKING WATER; ENDOCRINE DISRUPTOR; ESTRADIOL; ETHINYLESTRADIOL; GEOSMIN; HYDROGEN PEROXIDE; IBUPROFEN; IOPROMIDE; MACROLIDE; OXYBENZONE; OZONE; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; ROXITHROMYCIN; SULFAMETHOXAZOLE; TESTOSTERONE; TETRACYCLINE DERIVATIVE; TOXIC SUBSTANCE; TRICLOSAN; UNINDEXED DRUG; DRUG; OXIDIZING AGENT;

DRINKING WATER; DRUG; ECOSYSTEM HEALTH; ENDOCRINE DISRUPTOR; FISH; OXIDATION; OZONE; PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTY; POLLUTANT REMOVAL; PUBLIC HEALTH; RISK ASSESSMENT; TOXIC SUBSTANCE; WATER INDUSTRY;

AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT; CONCENTRATION (PARAMETERS); DISINFECTION; DRUG INDUSTRY; ECOSYSTEM; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; HUMAN; NONHUMAN; OXIDATION; OZONATION; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; WASTE COMPONENT REMOVAL; WATER MANAGEMENT; WATER QUALITY; WATER SUPPLY; ANIMAL; ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH; HEALTH; INDUSTRY; METHODOLOGY; WATER POLLUTANT;

ANIMALS; ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS; ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH; HUMANS; HYDROGEN PEROXIDE; INDUSTRY; OXIDANTS; OZONE; PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS; RISK ASSESSMENT; WATER POLLUTANTS, CHEMICAL; WATER PURIFICATION; WATER SUPPLY; WORLD HEALTH;

EID: 67651018950     PISSN: 14778920     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2166/wh.2009.021     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. 2. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 93(10), 90-100.
2. Acero, J. L., Stemmler, K. & Von Gunten, U. 2000 Degradation kinetics of atrazine and its degradation products with ozone and OH radicals: a predictive tool for drinking water treatment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 34, 591-597.
3. Adams, C., Asce, M., Wang, Y., Loftin, K. & Meyer, M. 2002 Removal of antibiotics from surface and distilled water in conventional water treatment processes. J. Environ. Eng. 128(3), 253-260.
4. Adams, N. R. 1990 Permanent infertility in ewes exposed to plant oestrogens. Aust. Vet. J. 67(6), 197-201.
5. Ahmed, S. A. 2000 The immune system as a potential target for environmental estrogens (endocrine disrupters): a new emerging field. Toxicology 150, 191-206.
6. Allan, B. B., Brant, R., Seidel, J. E. & Jarrell, J. F. 1997 Declining sex ratios in Canada. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 156(1), 37-41.
7. Arthur, M. F. & Frea, J. I. 1989 2.3.7.8-Tetrachlorobenzo-P-dioxin: aspects of its important properties and its potential biodegradation in soils. J. Environ. Qual. 18(1), 1-10.
8. Betts, K. S. 2002 Keeping drugs out of drinking water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36(1), 377A-378A.
9. Birklett, J. W. 2003 Scope of the problem. In Endocrine Disruptors in Wastewater and Sludge Treatment Processes. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida.
10. Bound, J. P. & Voulvoulis, N. 2005 Household disposal of pharmaceuticals as a pathway for aquatic contamination in the United Kingdom. Environ. Health Perspect. 113(12), 1705-1711.
11. Boxall, A. B. A., Sinclair, C. J., Fenner, K., Kolpin, D. & Maund, S. J. 2004 When synthetic chemicals degrade in the environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38(9), 369A-375A.
12. Boyd, G. R., Reemtsma, H., Grimm, D. A. & Mitra, S. 2003 Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in surface and treated water of Louisiana, USA and Ontario, Canada. Sci. Total Environ. 311, 135-149.
13. Birnbaum, L. S. 1994 Endocrine effects of prenatal exposure to PCBs, dioxins and other xenobiotics: implications for policy and future research. Environ. Health Perspect. 102(8), 676-679.
14. Colon, I., Caro, D., Bourdony, C. J. & Rosario, O. 2000 Identification of phthalate esters in the serum of young Puerto Rican girls with premature breast development. Environ. Health Perspect. 108(9), 895-900.
15. Cook, J. W., Doods, E. C., Hewett, C. L. & Lawson, W. 1934 Estrogenic activity of some condensed ring compounds in relation to their biological activities. Proc. R. Soc. London B114, 272-286.
16. Craft, S. E., Donnelly, K. C., Neamtiu, I., McCarty, K. M., Bruce, E., Surkova, I., Kim, D., Uhnakova, I., Gyorffy, E., Tesarov, E. & Anderson, B. 2006 Prioritizing environmental issues around the world: opinions from an international central and eastern European environmental health conference. Environ. Health Perspect. 114(12), 1813-1817.
17. Damgaard, I. N., Main, K. M., Toppari, J. & Skakkebaek, N. E. 2002 Impact of exposure to endocrine disrupters in utero and in childhood on adult reproduction. Best Pract. Res. Cl. En. 16(2), 289-309.
18. Ejaj, S., Akram, W., Lim, C. W., Lee, J. J. & Hussain, I. 2004 Endocrine disrupting pesticides: a leading cause of cancer among rural people in Pakistan. Exp. Oncol. 26(2), 98-105.
19. Environmental Defense 2006 Polluted Children, Toxic Nation. A Report on Pollution in Canadian Families. Environmental Defense Canada, Toronto, http://www.environmentaldefence. ca/reports/toxicnationFamily.htm, accessed 20 February 2008.
20. Falconer, I. R., Chapman, H. F., Moore, M. R. & Ranmuthugala, G. 2006 Endocrine-disrupting compounds: a review of their challenge to sustainable and safe water supply and water reuse. Environ. Toxicol. 10(1002), 181-191.
21. Fick, J., Lindberg, R. H., Tysklind, M., Haemig, P. D., Waledenstrom, J., Wallensten, A. & Olsen, B. 2007 Antiviral oseltamivir is not removed or degraded in normal sewage water treatment: implications for the development of resistance by influenza A virus. PloS ONE 2(10), 1-5, e986.
22. Frank, R. & Logan, L. 1988 Pesticides and industrial chemical residues at the mouth of Grand, Saugeen and Thames Rivers, Ontario, Canada, 1981-85. Arch. Environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 17, 741-754.
23. Fry, D. M. 1995 Reproductive effects in birds exposed to pesticides and industrial chemicals. Environ. Health Perspect. 103(7), 165-171.
24. Gomes, R. & Lester, J. N. 2003 Endocrine disrupters in drinking water and water reuse. In Endocrine Disruptors in Wastewater and Sludge Treatment Processes. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 219-266.
25. Guillette, L. J., Jr, Gross, T. S., Masson, G. R., Matter, J. M., Percival, H. F. &Woodward, A. R. 1994 Developmental abnormalities of the gonad and abnormal sex hormone concentrations in juvenile alligators from contaminated and control lakes in Florida. Environ. Health Perspect. 102(8), 680-688.
26. Gultekin, I. & Ince, N. H. 2007 Synthetic endocrine disruptors in the environment and water remediation by advanced oxidation processes. J. Environ. Manage. 85, 816-832.
27. Halling-Sorensen, B., Nielsen, S. N., Lanzky, P. F., Ingerslev, F., Holten Lutzhot, H. C. & Jorgensen, S. E. 1998 Occurrence, fate and effects of pharmaceutical substances in the environment: a review. Chemosphere 36(2), 357-393.
28. Health Canada 1995 Aldrin and Dieldrin. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/aldrin-dieldrine/index-e.html, accessed 31 July 2007.
29. Hemminger, P. 2005 Damming the flow of drugs into drinking water. Environ. Health Perspect. 113(10), 678-681.
30. Howell, W. M., Black, D. A. & Bortone, S. A. 1980 Abnormal expression of second order sex characters in a population of mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis holbrooki: evidence from environmentally induced masculinization. Copeia 4, 676-681.
31. Hua, W., Bennett, E. R. & Letcher, R. J. 2006a Ozone treatment and the depletion of detectable pharmaceuticals and atrazine herbicide in drinking water sourced from the upper Detroit river, Ontario, Canada. Water Res. 40, 2259-2266.
32. Hua, W. Y., Bennett, E. R., Maio, X. -S., Metcalfe, C. D. & Letcher, R. J. 2006b Seasonality effects on pharmaceuticals and striazine herbicides in wastewater effluent and surface water from the Canadian side of the upper Detroit river. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 25(9), 2356-2365.
33. Huber, M. M., Canonica, S., Park, G. -Y. & Von Gunten, U. 2003 Oxidation of pharmaceuticals during ozonation and advanced oxidation processes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37, 1016-1024.
34. Huber, M. M., Gobel, A., Joss, A., Hermann, N., Loffler, D., Mcardell, C. S., Ried, A., Siegrist, H., Ternes, T. A. & Von Gunten, U. 2005 Oxidation of pharmaceuticals during ozonation of municipal wastewater effluents: a pilot study. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39, 4290-4299.
35. Inadera, H. 2006 The immune system as a target for environmental chemicals: Xenoestrogen and other compounds. Toxicol. Lett. 164, 191-206.
36. Jamall, I. S. & Davis, B. 1991 Chemicals and environmentally caused diseases in developing countries. Infect. Dis. Clin. N. Am. 5(2), 365-373.
37. Jasim, S. Y., Irabelli, A., Yang, P., Ahmed, S. & Schweitzer, L. 2006 Presence of pharmaceuticals and pesticides in Detroit river water and the effect of ozone on removal. Ozone Sci. Eng. 28, 415-423.
38. Jones, O. A. H., Voulvoulis, N. & Lester, J. N. 2003 Potential impact of pharmaceuticals on environmental health. Bull. World Health Org. 81(10), 401-427.
39. Jones, O. A. H., Voulvoulis, N. & Lester, J. N. 2004 Potential ecological and human health risks associated with the presence of pharmaceutically active compounds in the aquatic environment. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 34(4), 335-350.
40. Jones, O. A. H., Lester, J. N. & Voulvoulis, N. 2005 Pharmaceuticals: a threat to drinking water? Trends Biotechnol. 23(4), 163-167.
41. Jorgensen, S. E. 2001 Foreword. In Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: Sources, Fate, Effects and Risks. Springer, Heidelberg.
42. Kapil, A. 2005 The challenge of antibiotic resistance: need to contemplate. Indian J. Med. Res. 12, 83-91.
43. Kavanagh, R. J., Balch, G. C., Kiparissis, Y., Niimi, A. J., Sherry, J., Tinson, C. & Metcalf, C. D. 2004 Endocrine disruption and altered gonadal development in white perch (Morone americana) from the lower Great Lakes region. Environ. Health Perspect. 112(8), 898-902.
44. Khiari, D. 2007 Endocrine disruptors, pharmaceuticals and personal care products in drinking water: an overview of AwwaRF research to date. Drinking Wat. Res., January/February. http://www.cwwa.ca/pdf-files/AwwaRF-EDC%20article1. pdf, accessed 30 January 2008.
45. Kim, S. D., Cho, J., Kim, I. S., Vanderford, B. J. & Snyder, S. A. 2007 Occurrence and removal of pharmaceuticals and endocrine disruptors in South Korean surface, drinking and waste waters. Water Res. 41, 1013-1021.
46. Kolpin, D. W., Thurman, E. M. & Goolsby, D. A. 1996 Occurrence of selected pesticides and their metabolites in near surface aquifers of the midwestern United States. Environ. Sci. Technol. 30, 335-340.
47. Kolpin, D. W., Barbash, J. E. & Gilliom, R. J. 1998 Occurrence of pesticides in shallow groundwater of the United States: initial results from the national water quality assessment program. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32, 558-566.
48. Kolpin, D. W., Thurman, E. M. & Linhart, S. M. 1998 The environmental occurrence of herbicides: the importance of degradates in ground water. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 35, 385-390.
49. Kolpin, D. W., Thurman, E. M. & Linhart, S. M. 2000 Finding minimal herbicide concentrations in ground water? Try looking for their degradates. Sci. Total Environ. 248, 115-122.
50. Kolpin, D. W., Furlong, E. T., Meyer, M. T., Thurman, E. M., Zaugg, S. D., Barber, L. B. & Buxton, H. T. 2002 Pharmaceuticals, hormones and other organic wastewater contaminants in US streams, 1999-2000: a national reconnaissance. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36, 1202-1211.
51. Kummerer, K. 2004 Pharmaceuticals in the environment: scope of the book and introduction. In Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: Sources, Fate, Effects and Risks. Springer, Heidelberg, pp. 3-12.
52. Kunisue, T., Someya, M., Kayama, F., Kayama, F., Jin, Y. & Tanabe, S. 2004 Persistent organic pollutants in human breast milk collected from Dalian and Shenyang, China. Organohal. Comp. 66, 2779-2784.
53. Lintelmann, J., Katayama, A., Kurihara, N., Shore, L. & Wenzel, A. 2003 Endocrine disruptors in the environment. Pure Appl. Chem. 75(5), 631-681.
54. Mackenzie, C. A., Lockridge, A. & Keith, M. 2005 Declining sex ratio in a first nation community. Environ. Health Perspect. 113(10), 1295-1298.
55. Maier, M., Maier, D. & Lloyd, B. J. 2000 Factors influencing the mobilization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from the coal-tar lining of water mains. Water Res. 34, 773.
56. Mcdowell, D. C., Huber, M., Wagner, M., Von Gunten, U. & Ternes, T. A. 2005 Ozonation of carbamazepine in drinking water: identification and kinetic study of major oxidation products. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39, 8014-8022.
57. Metcalfe, C. D., Koenig, B. G., Bennie, D. T., Servos, M., Ternes, T. A. & Hirsch, R. 2003 Occurrence of neutral and acidic drugs in the effluents of Canadian sewage treatment plants. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 22(12), 2872-2880.
58. Metcalfe, C., Miao, X. -S., Hua, W., Letcher, R. & Servos, M. 2004 Pharmaceuticals in the Canadian environment. In Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: Sources, Fate, Effects and Risks. Springer, Heidelberg, pp. 67-90.
59. Minh, N. H., Minh, T. B., Kajiwara, N., Subramanian, A., Iwata, H., Tana, T. S., Baburajendran, R., Karuppiah, S., Viet, P. H., Tuyen, B. C. & Tanabe, S. 2006 Contamination of persistent organic pollutants in dumping sites of Asian developing countries: implication of emerging pollutant sources. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 50, 474-481.
60. Mura, P., Faucci, M. T., Maestrelli, F., Furlanetto, S. & Pinzauti, S. 2002 Characterization of physicochemical properties of naproxen system with amorphous (-cyclodextrinepichlorohydrin polymers. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 29, 1015-1024.
61. Nakada, N., Shinohara, H., Murata, A., Kentaro, K., Managaki, S., Sato, N. & Tukada, H. 2007 Removal of selected pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) during sand filtration and ozonation at a municipal sewage treatment plant. Water Res. 41, 4373-4382.
62. Nentwig, G., Oetken, M. & Oehlmann, J. 2004 Effects of pharmaceuticals on aquatic invertebrates: the example of carbamaepine and clofibric acid. In Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: Sources, Fate, Effects and Risks. Springer, Heidelberg, pp. 195-208.
63. Okeke, I. N., Lamikanra, A. & Edelman, R. 1999 Socioeconomic and behavioral factors leading to acquired bacterial resistance to antibiotics in developing countries. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 5(1), 18-26.
64. Orlando, E. F. & Guillette, L. J. 2007 Sexual dimorphic responses in wildlife exposed to endocrine disrupting chemicals. Environ. Res. 104(1), 163-173.
65. Plant, J. A. & Davis, D. L. 2003 Breast and prostate cancer: Sources and pathways of endocrine-disrupting chemicals. In Geography and Health: Closing the Gap. Oxford University Press, New York.
66. Pocar, P., Bervini, T. A. L., Fischer, B. & Gandolfi, F. 2003 The impact of endocrine disruptors on oocyte competence. Reproduction 125, 313-325.
67. Pojana, G., Gomiero, A., Jonkers, N. & Marcomini, A. 2007 Natural and synthetic endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in water, sediment and biota of a coastal lagoon. Environ. Int. 33, 929-936.
68. Proffitt, F. & Bagla, P. 2004 Circling in on a vulture killer. Science 306, 223.
69. Purdom, C. E., Hardiman, P. A., Bye, V. J., Eno, N. C., Tyler, C. R. & Sumpter, J. P. 1994 Estrogenic effects of effluents from sewage treatment works. Chem. Ecol. 8, 275-285.
70. Rakness, K. L. 2005 Ozone in Drinking Water Treatment: Process Design, Operation and Optimization. American Water Works Association, Denver, Colorado.
71. Reynolds, K. A. 2003 Pharmaceuticals in drinking water supplies. WCP Online, 45(6), www.wcp.net/column. cfm?T = T&ID = 2199, accessed 31 October 2007.
72. 2. Water Res. 40, 3695-3704.
73. Safe, S. H. 2000 Endocrine disruption and human health: is there a problem? An update. Environ. Health Perspect. 108(6), 487-493.
74. Sasco, A. J. 2003 Breast cancer and the environment. Hormone Res. 60(3), 50.
75. Scheytt, T., Mersmann, P., Lindstadt, R. & Heberer, T. 2005 1-Octanol/Water partition coefficients of 5 pharmaceuticals from human medical care: carbamazepine, clofibric acid, diclofenac, ibuprofen, and propyphenazone. Water Air Soil Pollut. 165, 3-11.
76. Journal of Water and Health | 07.2 | 2009 Schwarzenbach, R. P., Gschwend, P. M. & Imboden, D. M. 2003 Environmental Organic Chemistry. Wiley, Hoboken, New Jersey.
77. Seagren, E. A. 2005 DDT, human health and the environment. J. Environ. Eng. 131(12), 1617-1619.
78. Servos, M. R., Bennie, D. T., Burnison, B. K., Jurkovic, A., McInnis, R., Neheli, T., Schnell, A., Seto, P., Smyth, S. A. & Ternes, T. A. 2005 Distribution of estrogens, 17h-estradiol and estrone, in Canadian municipal wastewater treatment plants. Sci. Total Environ. 336, 155-170.
79. Sharpe, R. M. & Irvine, D. S. 2004 How strong is the evidence of a link between environmental chemicals and adverse effects on human reproductive health? Brit. Med. J. 328, 447-451.
80. Shiru, N. 2000 Cooperation can solve it. Bull. World Health Org. 78(9), 1160.
81. Smith, K. R. 2000 Environmental health: for the rich or for all? Bull. World Health Org. 78(9), 1156-1157.
82. Snyder, S. A. 2008 Occurrence, treatment and toxicological relevance of EDCs and pharmaceuticals in water. Ozone: Sci. Eng. 30(1), 65-69.
83. Snyder, S. A., Westerhoff, P., Yoon, Y. & Sedlak, D. L. 2003 Pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and endocrine disruptors in water: implications for the water industry. Environ. Eng. Sci. 20(5), 449-469.
84. Snyder, E. M., Pleus, R. C. & Snyder, S. A. 2005 Pharmaceuticals and EDCs in the US water industry: an update. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 97(11), 32-36.
85. Snyder, S. A., Adham, S., Redding, A. M., Cannon, F. S., Decarolis, J., Oppenheimer, J., Wert, E. C. & Yoon, Y. 2006 Role of membranes and activated carbon removal of endocrine disruptors and pharmaceuticals. Desalination 202, 156-181.
86. Snyder, S. A., Wert, E. C., Rexing, D. J., Zegers, R. E. & Drury, D. D. 2006 Ozone oxidation of endocrine disruptors and pharmaceuticals in surface water and wastewater. Ozone Sci. Eng. 28(6), 445-460.
87. Solaiman, M. A., Pedersen, J. A. & (Mel) Suffet, I. H. 2004 Rapid gas chromatrography: mass spectrometry screening method for human pharmaceuticals, hormones, antioxidants and plasticizers in water. J. Chromat. 1029, 223-237.
88. Stackelberg, P. E., Furlong, E. T., Meyer, M. T., Zaugg, S. D., Henderson, A. K. & Reissman, D. B. 2004 Persistence of pharmaceutical compounds and other organic wastewater contaminants in a conventional drinking water treatment plant. Sci. Total Environ. 329, 99-113.
89. Stackelberg, P. E., Gibs, J., Furlong, E. T., Meyer, M. T., Zaugg, S. D. & Lippincott, R. L. 2007 Efficiency of conventional drinking-water-treatment processes in removal of pharmaceuticals and other organic compounds. Sci. Total Environ. 377, 255-272.
90. Stumpf, M., Ternes, T. A., Wilken, R. -D., Rodrigues, S. V. & Baumann, W. 1999 Polar drug residues in sewage and natural waters in the state of Rio de Janeiro. Brazil. Sci. Total Environ. 225, 135-141.
91. Suk, W. A., Ruchirawat, K. M., Balakrishnan, K., Berger, M., Carpenter, D., Damstra, T., De Garbino, J. P., Koh, D., Landrigan, P. J., Makalinao, I., Sly, P. D., Xu, Y. & Zheng, B. S. 2003 Environmental threats to children's health in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific. Environ. Health Perspect. 111(10), 1340-1347.
92. Sumpter, J. P. 2005 Endocrine disruptors in the aquatic environment: an overview. Acta Hydroch. Hydrob. 33(1), 9-16.
93. Ternes, T. A. 1998 Occurrence of drugs in German sewage treatment plants and rivers. Water Res. 32(11), 3245-3260.
94. Ternes, T. A. 2001 Analytical methods for the determination of pharmaceuticals in aqueous environmental samples. Trends Anal. Chem. 20(8), 419-434.
95. Ternes, T. A., Meisenheimer, M., Mcdowell, D., Sacher, F., Brauch, H. -J., Preuss, G., Wilme, U. & Zulei- Seibert, N. 2002 Removal of pharmaceuticals during drinking water treatment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36, 3855-3863.
96. Ternes, T. A., Stuber, J., Herrmann, N., Mcdowell, D., Ried, A., Kampmann, M. & Teiser, B. 2003 Ozonation: a tool for removal of pharmaceuticals, contrast media and musk fragrances from wastewater? Water Res. 37, 1976-1982.
97. Thurman, E. M., Goolsby, D. A., Meyer, M. T., Mills, M. S., Pomes, M. L. & Kolpin, D. W. 1992 A reconnaissance of study of herbicides and their metabolites in surface water of midwestern United States using immunoassay and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Environ. Sci. Technol. 26, 2440-2447.
98. USEPA 2001 Removal of Endocrine Disruptor Chemicals Using Drinking Water Treatment Processes, Report No. EPA/625/R-00/015, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
99. Vieno, N. M., Tuhkanen, T. & Kronberg, L. 2006 Removal of pharmaceuticals in drinking water treatment: Effect of chemical coagulation. Environ. Technol. 27(2), 183-192.
100. Vieno, N. M., Harkki, H., Tuhkanen, T. & Kronberg, L. 2007 Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in river water and their elimination in a pilot-scale drinking water treatment plant. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 5077-5084.
101. Vineis, P. 2000 A case in point: occupational cancer. Bull. World Health Org. 78(9), 1158-1159.
102. Von Gunten, U. 2003 Ozonation of drinking water: Part I. Oxidation kinetics and product formation. Water Res. 37, 1443-1467.
103. Von Gunten, U., Janex-Habibi, M. L., Ternes, T. A. & Weber, L. 2006 Removal of PPCP during drinking water treatment. In Human Pharmaceuticals, Hormones, and Fragrances. The Challenge of Micropollutants in Urban Water Management. IWA Publishing, London.
104. Walker, B. S. & Janey, J. C. 1930 Estrogenic substances II. Analysis of plant sources. Endocrinology 14, 389-392.
105. Webb, S., Ternes, T., Gilbert, M. & Olejniczak, K. 2003 Indirect human exposure to pharmaceuticals via drinking water. Toxicol. Lett. 142(3), 157-167.
106. Wert, E. C., Rosario-Ortiz, F. L., Drury, D. D. & Snyder, S. A. 2007 Formation of oxidation by products from ozonation of wastewater. Water Res. 41, 1481-1490.
107. Westerhoff, P. 2003 Removal of endocrine disruptors, pharmaceuticals and personal care products during water treatment. Southwest Hydrol. 2(6), 18-19.
108. Westerhoff, P., Yoon, Y., Snyder, S. & Wert, E. 2005 Fate of endocrine disruptor, pharmaceutical and personal care product chemicals during simulated drinking water treatment process. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39(17), 6649-6663.
109. WHO 1996 Health criteria and other supporting information (Vol. 2). In Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking water quality, Guidelines for drinking water quality. World Health Organization, Geneva.
110. Ying, G., Williams, B. & Kookana, R. 2002 Environmental fate of alkylphenols and alkylphenol ethoxylates: a review. Environ. Int. 28, 215-226.
111. Zuccato, E., Calamari, D., Natangelo,M.& Fanelli, R. 2000 Presence of therapeutic drugs in the environment. Lancet 335, 1789-1790.
112. Zweiner, C. & Frimmel, F. H. 2000 Oxidative treatment of pharmaceuticals in water. Water Res. 34(6), 1881-1885.