The altitude of alpine treeline: A bellwether of climate change effects

Botanical Review

Volumn 75, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 163-190

  Smith, William K ^a   Germino, Matthew J ^b   Johnson, Daniel M ^c   Reinhardt, Keith ^a  

^a WAKE FOREST UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b IDAHO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c PACIFIC NORTHWEST RESEARCH STATION   (United States)

Author keywords

Climate; Ecotone; Facilitation; Seedling; Timberline; Treeline

Indexed keywords

EID: 67650215493     PISSN: 00068101     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s12229-009-9030-3     Document Type: Article

References (148)

1. 2 New Phytologist 165 351 372 (Pubitemid 40177950)
2. 2: mechanisms and environmental interactions Plant, Cell & Environment 30 258 270 (Pubitemid 46184429)
3. P. Alvarez-Uria C. Körner 2007 Low temperature limits of root growth in deciduous and evergreen temperate tree species Functional Ecology 21 211 218 (Pubitemid 46437125)
4. 2 forcing induces semi-direct effects with consequences for climate feedback interpretations Geophysical Letters 35 L04802
5. Arno, S. F. 1984. Timberline, mountain and arctic frontiers. The Mountaineers, Seattle.
6. M. Y. Bader I. van Geloof M. Rietkerk 2007 High solar radiation hinders tree establishment above the alpine treeline in northern Ecuador Plant Ecology 191 33 45 (Pubitemid 46897526)
7. M. C. Ball V. S. Hodges G. P. Laughlin 1991 Cold-induced photoinhibition limits regeneration of snow gum at tree line Functional Ecology 5 663 668
8. M. F. Bekker 2005 Positive feedback between tree establishment and patterns of subalpine forest advancement, Glacier National Park, Montana, USA Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 37 97 107 (Pubitemid 40660488)
9. - -, G. P. Malanson, K. J. Alftine & D. M. Cairns. 2001. Feedback and pattern in computer simulations of the alpine treeline ecotone. Pages 71-82 in A. C. Millington, S. J. Walsh, & P. E. Osborne (eds.), GIS and remote sensing applications in biogeography and ecology. Kluwer Academic, Boston.
10. R. E. J. Boerner J. A. Brinkman 1996 Ten years of tree seedling establishment and mortality in an Ohio deciduous forest complex Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 123 309 317
11. J. R. Bridle T. H. Vines 2006 Limits to evolution at range margins: when and why does adaptation fail Trends in Ecology and Evolution 22 140 147
12. C. R. Brodersen M. J. Germino W. K. Smith 2006 Photosynthesis during an episodic drought in Abies lasiocarpa and Picea engelmannii across an alpine tree line Artic, Antarctic and Alpine Research 38 34 41 (Pubitemid 43276009)
13. R. W. Brooker F. T. Maestre R. M. Callaway C. Lortie L. A. Cavieres G. Kunstler P. Liancourt K. Tielbörger J. M. L. Travis F. Anthelme F. C. Armas L. Coll E. Corcket S. Delzon E. Forey Z. Kikvidze J. Olofsson F. Pugnaire C. L. Quiroz P. Saccone K. Schiffers M. Seifan B. Touzard R. Michalet 2008 Facilitation in plant communities: The past, the present, and the future Journal of Ecology 96 18 34 (Pubitemid 350256562)
14. U. Büntgen D. C. Frank M. Schmidhalter T. Burkhard B. Neuwirth M. Seifert J. Esper 2006 Growth/climate response shift in a long subalpine spruce chronology Trees 20 99 110 (Pubitemid 41831007)
15. D. R. Butler G. P. Malanson L. M. Resler 2004 Turf-banked terrace treads and risers, turf exfoliation, and possible relationships with advancing tree line Catena 58 259 274 (Pubitemid 39471313)
16. D. M. Cairns 2005 Simulating carbon balance at tree line for krummholz and dwarf tree growth forms Ecological Modeling 187 314 328 (Pubitemid 41224274)
17. D. M. Cairns J. Moen 2004 Herbivory influences tree lines Journal of Ecology 92 1019 1024 (Pubitemid 40068313)
18. S. K. Chapman J. A. Langley S. C. Hart G. W. Koch 2006 Plants actively control nitrogen cycling: Uncorking the microbial bottleneck New Phytologist 169 27 34
19. P. Choler R. Michalet R. M. Callaway 2001 Facilitation and competition along gradients in alpine plant communities Ecology 82 3295 3308 (Pubitemid 34018302)
20. M. Cui W. K. Smith 1990 Photosynthesis and water relations of young seedlings of Abies lasiocarpa with high natural mortality Tree Physiology 8 37 46
21. M. Cui W. K. Smith 1991 Seedling microenvironment, gas exchange and survival during first-year establishment in subalpine conifers Tree Physiology 10 44 53
22. V. H. Dale L. A. Joyce S. [tmp] McNulty R. P. Neilson M. P. Ayres M. D. Flannigan P. J. Hanson L. C. Irland A. E. Lugo C. J. Peterson D. Simberloff F. J. Swanson B. J. Stocks B. M. Wotton 2001 Climate change and forest disturbance Bioscience 51 723 734
23. 2: A meta-analysis Global Change Biology 12 2077 2091 (Pubitemid 44560720)
24. 2: Implications for the global C cycle Global Biogeochemical Cycles 19 GB3006
25. E. H. DeLucia C. L. Casteel P. D. Nabity B. F. O'Neil 2008 Insects take a bigger bite out of plants in a warmer, higher carbon dioxide world Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 105 1781 1782
26. G. Di Pasquale M. Marziano S. Impagliazzo C. Lubritto A. De Natale M. Y. Bader 2008 The Holocene tree line in the northern Andes (Ecuador): First evidence from soil charcoal Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology 259 17 34
27. J. J. G. Egerton J. G. C. Banks A. Gibson R. B. Cunningham M. C. Ball 2000 Facilitation of seedling establishment: reduction in irradiance enhances winter growth of Eucalyptus pauciflora Ecology 81 1437 1446
28. A. C. Finzi D. J. P. Moore E. H. DeLucia J. Lichter K. S. Hofmockel R. B. Jackson H. S. Kim R. Matamala H. R. [tmp] McCarthy R. Oren J. S. Pippen W. H. Schlesinger 2006 Progressive nitrogen limitation of ecosystem processes under elevated CO2 in a warm-temperate forest Ecology 87 15 25 (Pubitemid 43363711)
29. A. D. Friend F. I. Woodward 1990 Evolutionary and ecophysiological responses of mountain plants to the growing season environment Advances in Ecological Research 20 59 124
30. J. Gale 1972 The availability of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis at high altitudes: Theoretical considerations Ecology 53 494 497
31. J. Gale 1972 Elevation and transpiration. Some theoretical considerations, with special reference to Mediterranean type climates Journal of Applied Ecology 9 691 702
32. J. Gale 1973 Experimental evidence for the effect of barometric pressure on photosynthesis and transpiration Ecology and Conservation (UNESCO) 5 289 293
33. J. Gale 2004 Plants and altitude-revisited Annals of Botany 94 199 200
34. M. A. Geber 2008 To the edge: Studies of species range limits New Phytologist 178 228 230
35. T. Geiger C. Leuschner 2004 Altitudinal change in needle water relations of Pinus canariensis and possible evidence of a drought-induced alpine timberline on Mt. Teide, Tenerife Flora 199 100 109 (Pubitemid 38522168)
36. M. J. Germino W. K. Smith 1999 Sky exposure, crown architecture, and low temperature photoinhibition in conifer seedlings at alpine tree line Plant, Cell & Environment 22 407 415 (Pubitemid 29235632)
37. M. J. Germino W. K. Smith 2001 Interactions of microsite, plant form, and low-temperature photoinhibition in alpine plants Artic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 32 388 396
38. M. J. Germino C. A. C. Resor W. K. Smith 2002 Influence of microsite and plant form on photosynthetic responses to frost and high sunlight Plant Ecology 162 157 168
39. M. J. Germino N. J. Hasselquist T. M. [tmp] McGonigle W. K. Smith P. Sheridan 2006 Colonization of conifer seedling roots by fungal mycelium in an alpine-tree line ecotone: Relationships to microsite, developmental stage, and ecophysiology of seedlings Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36 901 909
40. L. Gimenez-Benavides A. Escudero J. M. Iriondo 2007 Local adaptation enhances seedling recruitment along an altitudinal gradient in a high-mountain Mediterranean plant Annals of Botany 99 723 734 (Pubitemid 47355873)
41. F. Giorgi 2001 Emerging patterns of simulated regional climatic changes for the 21st century due to anthropogenic forcings Geophysical Research Letters 28 3317 3326
42. S. B. Goldenberg C. W. Landsea A. M. Mestas-Nunez W. M. Gray 2001 The recent increase in Atlantic hurricane activity: causes and implications Science 293 474 479 (Pubitemid 32679071)
43. P. G. Gosz 1993 Ecological hierarchies Ecological Applications 3 369 376
44. J. Grace F. Berninger L. Nagy 2002 Impacts of climate change on the tree line Annals of Botany 90 537 544 (Pubitemid 35211609)
45. G. Grabherr M. Gottfried H. Pauli 1994 Climate effects on Mountain plants Nature 369 448 (Pubitemid 24210562)
46. 2: an assessment of recent growth trends Ecology 72 1 11
47. L. J. Graumlich L. B. Brubaker 1986 Reconstruction of annual temperature (1590-1979) for Longmire, Washington, derived from tree rings Quaternary Research 25 223 234 (Pubitemid 18306690)
48. 2 forcing Journal of Climate 21 58 63
49. V. P. Gutschick H. BassririRad 2003 Extreme events as shaping physiology, ecology, and evolution of plants: toward a unified definition and evaluation of their consequences New Phytologist 160 21 42 (Pubitemid 37155970)
50. J. L. Hadley W. K. Smith 1987 Influence of krummholz mat microclimate on needle physiology and survival Oecologia 73 82 90 (Pubitemid 18289793)
51. 2 enrichment at the Swiss treeline Functional Ecology 22 348 358
52. P. A. Harcombe 1987 Tree life tables Bioscience 37 557 568
53. N. J. Hasselquist M. J. Germino T. [tmp] McGonigle W. K. Smith 2005 Variability of Cenococcum colonization and its ecophysiological significance for young conifers at alpine tree line New Phytologist 165 867 873 (Pubitemid 40284848)
54. S. Hättenschwiler W. K. Smith 1999 Natural seedling occurrence in treeline conifers: a case study from the central Rocky Mountains, USA Acta Oecologia 20 219 224 (Pubitemid 29368538)
55. 2 enrichment of alpine tree line conifers New Phytologist 156 363 375 (Pubitemid 35456804)
56. Hayden, B. P. & N. R. Hayden. 2003. Decadal and century-long storminess changes at long term ecological research sites. Pages 262-285 in D. Greenland, D. G. Goodin, R. C. Smith (eds.), Climate variability and ecosystem climate variability and response at long-term ecological research sites. Oxford University Press, New York.
57. G. Hoch M. Popp C. Körner 2002 Altitudinal increase of mobile carbon pools in Pinus cembra suggests sink limitation of growth at the Swiss tree line Oikos 98 361 374
58. Holtmeier, F. K. 2003. Mountain timberlines: ecology, patchiness, and dynamics. Advances in Global Change Research 14 Dordrecht, Boston.
59. F. K. Holtmeier G. Broll 2005 Sensitivity and response of the northern hemisphere altitudinal and polar tree lines to environmental change at landscape and local scales Global Ecology and Biogeography 14 395 410 (Pubitemid 41702197)
60. F. K. Holtmeier G. Broll 2007 Tree line advance-driving processes and adverse factors Landscape Online 1 1 33
61. 2, nitrogen deposition, increased temperature and management on carbon sequestration in temperate and boreal forest ecosystems: A literature review New Phytologist 173 463 480 (Pubitemid 46098886)
62. IPCC Climate Change. 2007. Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Contribution of working Group II, 4th Assessment Report of the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). ( www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg2,htm )
63. D. M. Johnson W. K. Smith 2007 Limitations to photosynthetic carbon gain in timberline Abies lasiocarpa seedlings during prolonged drought Canadian Journal of Forest Research 37 568 597
64. D. M. Johnson W. K. Smith 2007 Cloud immersion alters microclimate, photosynthesis and water relations in Rhododendron catawbiense and Abies fraseri seedlings in the southern Appalachian Mountains, USA Tree Physiology 28 385 392
65. D. M. Johnson M. J. Germino W. K. Smith 2004 Abiotic factors limiting photosynthesis in Abies lasiocarpa and Picea engelmannii seedlings below and above the alpine timberline Tree Physiology 24 377 386 (Pubitemid 38504115)
66. D. N. Jordan W. K. Smith 1995 Microclimate factors influencing the frequency and duration of growth season frost in subalpine plants Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 77 17 30 (Pubitemid 3000131)
67. V. Juntunen S. Neuvonen 2006 Natural regeneration of Scots pine and Norway spruce close to the timberline in northern Finland Silva Fennica 40 443 458 (Pubitemid 44503925)
68. V. Juntunen S. Neuvonen Y. Norokopi T. Tasanen 2002 Potential for timberline advance in northern Finland, as revealed by monitoring during 1983-99 Artic 55 348 361 (Pubitemid 36189422)
69. C. Körner 1998 A reassessment of high elevation tree line positions and their explanation Oecologia 115 445 459 (Pubitemid 28358477)
70. - -. 2003a. Alpine plant life: functional plant ecology of high mountain ecosystems, 2nd ed. Springer, Berlin, 77-99
71. C. Körner 2003 Carbon limitation in trees Journal of Ecology 91 4 7
72. - -. 2005. The green cover of mountains in a changing environment. In: U. M Hubter, H. K. M. Bugmann, M. E. Reasoner eds. Global change and mountain regions: An overview of current knowledge. 367-375. Advances in Global Change Research 23, Dordrecht.
73. 2 responses: an issue of definition, time and resource supply New Phytologist 172 393 411 (Pubitemid 44571070)
74. C. Körner 2007 Climatic tree lines: Conventions, global patterns, causes Erdkunde 61 316 324
75. C. Körner J. Paulsen 2004 A world-wide study of high-altitude tree line temperatures Journal of Biogeography 31 713 732 (Pubitemid 38549856)
76. L. Kullman 2007 Tree line population monitoring of Pinus sylvestris in the Swedish Scandes, 1973-2005: Implications for climate change ecology Journal of Ecology 95 41 52 (Pubitemid 44952296)
77. A-M. Kytöviita A. L. Ruotsalainen 2007 Mycorrhizal benefit in two low arctic herbs increases with increasing temperature American Journal of Botany 94 1309 1315 (Pubitemid 47282118)
78. H. Lambers H. Poorter 1992 Inherent variation in growth rate between higher plants: A search for physiological causes and ecological consequences Advances in Ecological Research 23 188 242
79. K. League T. Veblen 2006 Climatic variability and episodic Pinus ponderosa establishment along the forest-grassland ecotones of Colorado Forest Ecology and Management 228 98 107 (Pubitemid 43728557)
80. C. Leuschner 2000 Are high elevations in tropical mountains arid environments for plants? Ecology 81 1425 1436 (Pubitemid 30446176)
81. S. Leuzinger C. Körner 2007 Tree species diversity affects canopy leaf temperatures in a mature temperate forest Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 146 29 37 (Pubitemid 47247897)
82. M. Li W. Xiao S. Wang G. Cheng P. Cherubini X. Cai L. Liu X. Wang W. Zhu 2008 Mobile carbohydrates in Himalayan tree line trees I. Evidence for carbon gain limitation but not for growth limitation Tree Physiology 28 1287 1296
83. B. R. Loveys I. Scheurwater T. L. Pons A. H. Fitter O. K. Atkin 2002 Growth temperature influences the underlying components of relative growth rate: An investigation using inherently fast- and slow-growing plant species Plant, Cell & Environment 25 975 988
84. E. L. Maher M. J. Germino 2006 Microsite differentiation among conifer species during seedling establishment at alpine tree line Ecoscience 13 334 341 (Pubitemid 44509225)
85. G. P. Malanson 1997 Effects of feedback and seed rain on ecotone patterns Landscape Ecology 12 27 38
86. G. P. Malanson 2001 Complex responses to global change at alpine treeline Physical Geography 22 333 342 (Pubitemid 34577605)
87. - -, D. R. Butler, D. B. Fagre, S. J. Walsh, D. F. Tomback, L. D. Daniels, L. M. Resler, W. K. Smith, D. L. Weis, D. L. Peterson, A. G. Bunn, C. H. Hiemstra, D. Liptzin, P. S. Bourgeron, Z. Shen & C. I. Miller. 2007. Physical Geography 28: 378-396.
88. 2: An early, short-term response? Global Change Biology 5 623 633 (Pubitemid 29536936)
89. S. Mayr A. Gruber H. Bauer 2003 Repeated freeze-thaw cycles induce embolism in drought stressed conifers (Norway spruce, stone pine) Planta 217 436 441 (Pubitemid 36933278)
90. - -, - - & - -. 2007. Limits in water relations. Pages 145-162 in G. Wieser, M. Tuasz (eds.), Trees at their upper limit: tree life limitations at the alpine tree line. Plant Ecophysiology 5, Springer, Dordrecht.
91. S. G. [tmp] McNulty J. D. Aber 2001 US national climate change assessment on forest ecosystems: An introduction Bioscience 51 720 722 (Pubitemid 32908162)
92. P. Millard M. Sommerkorn G. Quen-Aëlle 2007 Environmental change and carbon limitation in trees: A biochemical, ecophysiological and ecosystem appraisal New Phytologist 175 11 28 (Pubitemid 46854920)
93. R. Michalet 2006 Is facilitation in arid environments the result of direct or complex interactions? New Phytologist 169 3 6
94. A. S. Mori E. Mizumachi D. G. Sprugel 2008 Morphological acclimation to understory environments in Abies amabilis, a shade- and snow-tolerant conifer species of the Cascade Mountains, Washington, USA Tree Physiology 28 815 824
95. 2-related Trees 9 181 189
96. K. J. Niklas 2007 Maximum plant height and the biophysical factors that limit it Tree Physiology 27 433 440 (Pubitemid 46525683)
97. K. J. Niklas H-C. Spatz 2006 Allometric theory and the mechanical stability of large trees: Proof and conjecture American Journal of Botany 93 824 828 (Pubitemid 43824664)
98. I. R. Noble 1993 A model of response of ecotones to climate change Ecological Applications 3 396 403 (Pubitemid 24410273)
99. C. B. Osmond 2007 Crassulacean acid metabolism: now and then Progress in Botany 68 3 32
100. S. Palacio M. Maestroa G. Montserrat-Martí 2005 Seasonal dynamics of non-structural carbohydrates in two species of Mediterranean sub-shrubs with different leaf phenology Environmental and Experimental Botany 59 34 42
101. C. Parmesan 2006 Ecological and evolutionary responses to recent climate change Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 37 637 669 (Pubitemid 44907632)
102. J. Paulsen U. M. Weber C. Körner 2000 Tree growth near tree line: Abrupt or gradual reduction with altitude? Artic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 32 14 20 (Pubitemid 30166079)
103. C. Rathgeber J. Guiot J. J. Eduard 2000 Utilisation d'un modèl biogéochimique en dendroécologie. Application au pin Cembro Comminications de Recherche, Academie des Sciences Paris 323 489 497 (Pubitemid 30326301)
104. J. A. Raven 2002 Selection pressures on stomatal evolution New Phytologist 153 371 386 (Pubitemid 34196710)
105. K. Reinhardt W. K. Smith 2007 Leaf gas exchange of understory spruce-fir saplings in relict cloud forests, southern Appalachian Mountains, USA Tree Physiology 28 113 122
106. P. G. Risser 1995 The status of the science of examining ecotones Bioscience 45 318 325
107. F. O. Sarmiento L. M. Frolich 2002 Andean cloud forest tree lines: Naturalness, agriculture and the human dimension Mountain Research and Development 22 278 287 (Pubitemid 35259266)
108. H. Seppä M. Nyman A. Korhola J. Weckström 2002 Changes of tree lines and alpine vegetation in relation to post-glacial climate dynamics in northern Fennoscandia based on pollen and chironomid records Journal of Quaternary Science 17 287 301 (Pubitemid 34850507)
109. Sharkey, T. D., I. Terashima, A. Standish & S. E. Weise. 2004. CO2 processing from the chloroplast to the leaf. Pages 171-206 in W. K. Smith, T. C. Vogelmann, C. Critchley, (eds.), Photosynthetic adaptation from the chloroplast to the landscape. Ecological studies 178. Springer, New York.
110. P. Shi C. Körner G. Hoch 2006 End-of-season carbon supply status of woody species near the tree line in western China Basic and Applied Ecology 7 370 377 (Pubitemid 43832183)
111. P. Shi C. Körner G. Hoch 2008 A test of the growth-limitation theory for alpine tree line formation in evergreen and deciduous taxa of the eastern Himalayas Functional Ecology 22 213 220
112. H. H. Shugart N. H. F. French E. S. Kasischke J. J. Slawski C. W. Dull R. A. Shuchman J. Mwangi 2001 Detection of vegetation change using reconnaissance imagery Global Change Biology 7 247 252 (Pubitemid 32325175)
113. Slatyer, R. O. & I. R. Noble. 1992. Dynamics of montane treelines. Pages 360-378 in A. Hansen, D. Di Castri (eds.), Landscape boundaries: consequences for biotic diversity and ecological flows. Ecological Studies 92. Springer, New York.
114. W. K. Smith C. A. Brewer 1994 The adaptive importance of shoot and crown architecture in conifer trees American Naturalist 143 528 532 (Pubitemid 2067823)
115. W. K. Smith G. A. Carter 1988 Shoot structural effects of needle temperature and photosynthesis in conifers American Journal of Botany 75 496 500
116. 2 uptake potential in plants Plant, Cell & Environment 14 133 136
117. W. K. Smith G. N. Geller 1981 Leaf and environmental parameters influencing transpiration: Theory and field measurements Oecologia 46 308 314
118. - - & N. M. Hughes. 2008. Progress in understanding plant form and photosynthetic function. Castanea, in press.
119. - - & D. M. Johnson. 2008. Biophysical effects of altitude on plant gas exchange. In: Biophysical Plant Ecology: Perspectives and Trends. University of California Press, Los Angeles.
120. - - & A. K. Knapp. 1990. Ecophysiology of high elevation forests. Pages 87-142 in C. B. Osmond, L. Pitelka (eds.), Plant biology of the Great Basin and range. Springer, London.
121. W. K. Smith M. J. Germino T. E. Hancock D. M. Johnson 2003 Another perspective on the altitudinal occurrence of alpine tree lines Tree Physiology 23 1101 1113
122. - -, P. S. Nobel, W. E. Reiners, T. C. Vogelmann & C. Chritchley. 2004. Summary and future perspectives. Pages 3-14in W. K. Smith, T. C. Vogelmann, C. Critchley (eds.), Photosynthetic adaptation from the chloroplast to the landscape. Ecological Studies 178. Springer, New York.
123. - -, D. M. Johnson & K. A. Reinhardt. 2008. Ecosystems: Alpine forest. in S. E. Jorgensen (ed.), Encyclopedia of ecology. Elsevier, Oxford.
124. J. S. Sperry 2000 Hydraulic constraints on plant gas exchange Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 104 13 23 (Pubitemid 30441977)
125. 2 New Phytologist 76 243 255 (Pubitemid 47480892)
126. G. Stanhill S. Cohen 2001 Global dimming: A review of the evidence for a widespread and significant reduction in global radiation with discussion of its probable causes and possible agricultural consequences Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 107 255 278 (Pubitemid 32235100)
127. 2 fertilization as a cause of increased tree growth during 1850-1980 in central Nevada. Preliminary report, Laboratory of Tree Ring Research. University of Arizona, Tucson, 1-26.
128. S. Susiluoto M. Perämäkia E. Nikinmaaa F. Berninger 2007 Effects of sink removal on transpiration at the tree line: Implications for the growth limitation hypothesis Environmental & Experimental Botany 60 334 339 (Pubitemid 46970714)
129. B. Sveinbjörnsson 2000 North American and European tree lines: external forces and internal processes controlling position Ambio 29 388 395
130. 2 pressure? Ecology 76 2663 2668 (Pubitemid 3013847)
131. Tranquillini, W. 1979. Physiological ecology of the alpine timberline. Ecological Studies 31. Springer, New York. 137 pp.
132. C. Troll 1973 The upper timberlines in different climatic zones Arctic and Alpine Research 5 3 18
133. Walsh, S., G. P. Malanson & D. R. Butler. 1992. Alpine treeline in Glacier National Park, Montana. Pages 167-171 in D. Janelle (ed.), Geographical snapshots of North America. Commemorating the 24th Congress of the International Geographical Union and Assembly. Guilford, New York.
134. T. Wang Q. Zhang K. Ma 2006 Tree line dynamics in relation to climatic variability in the central Tianshan Mountains, northwestern China Global Ecology and Biogeography 15 406 415 (Pubitemid 43983870)
135. 3 annuals Oecologia 123 330 341 (Pubitemid 30392695)
136. Wardle, P. 1974. Alpine timberlines. Pages 371-402 in J. D. Ives, R. G. Barry (eds.), Arctic and alpine environments. Methuen, London.
137. P. Webster J. Holland G. J. Curry H. R. Chang 2005 Changes in tropical cyclone number, duration, and intensity in a warming environment Science 309 1844 1846 (Pubitemid 41325092)
138. Weiser, G. 2007a. Current concepts for treelife limitations at the upper treeline. Pages 1-18 in G. Wieser, M. Tuasz (eds.), Trees at their upper limit: Tree life limitations at the alpine tree line. Plant Ecophysiology 5. Springer, Dordrecht.
139. - -. 2007b. Global change at the upper timberline. Pages 197-209 in G. Wieser, M. Tuasz (eds.), Trees at their upper limit: Tree life limitations at the alpine tree line. Plant Ecophysiology 5, Springer, Dordrecht.
140. - - & M. Tuasz. 2007. Synopsis. Pages 219-223 in G. Wieser, M. Tuasz (eds.), Trees at their upper limit: Tree life limitations at the alpine tree line. Plant Ecophysiology 5. Springer, Dordrecht.
141. T. Wiegand J. L. Camarero N. Rüger E. Gutiérrez 2006 Abrupt population changes in tree line ecotones along smooth gradients Journal of Ecology 94 880 889
142. P. J. B. Williams 1998 The balance of plankton respiration and photosynthesis in the open oceans Nature 394 55 57
143. J. W. Williams S. T. Jackson 2007 Novel climates, no-analog communities, and ecological surprises Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5 475 482 (Pubitemid 350071683)
144. A. Wolf T. V. Callaghan K. Larson 2008 Future changes in vegetation and ecosystem function of the Barents Region Climatic Change doi:10.1007/s1058-007- 9342-4
145. 2-implications for water-limited environments Plant, Cell & Environment 25 319 331 (Pubitemid 34179275)
146. 2, fine roots and the response of soil microorganisms: a review and hypothesis New Phytologist 147 201 222 (Pubitemid 30597227)
147. M. S. Zens D. R. Peart 2003 Dealing with death data: individual hazards, mortality and bias Trends in Ecology and Evolution 18 366 373 (Pubitemid 36774628)
148. E. L. Zvereva M. V. Kozlov 2004 Facilitative effects of top-canopy plants on four dwarf shrub species in habitats severely disturbed by pollution Journal of Ecology 92 288 296 (Pubitemid 38448465)