Allometric theory and the mechanical stability of large trees: Proof and conjecture

American Journal of Botany

Volumn 93, Issue 6, 2006, Pages 824-828

  Niklas, Karl J ^a   Spatz, Hanns Christof ^b  

^a Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF FREIBURG   (Germany)

Author keywords

Allometry; Bending moments; Biomechanics; Plant biomass partitioning; Root biomass; Scaling rules; Stem biomass; Wind drag

Indexed keywords

ALLOMETRY; BIOMECHANICS; MECHANICAL THEORY; VASCULAR PLANT;

TRACHEOPHYTA;

EID: 33744746976     PISSN: 00029122     EISSN: 00029122     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3732/ajb.93.6.824     Document Type: Article

References (40)

1. BROMS, B. B. 1964. Lateral resistance of piles in cohesive soils. Mechanical Foundations, Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers SM2 90: 27-63.
2. BUSSINGER, J. A. 1975. Aerodynamics of vegetated surfaces. In D. A. DeVries and N. H. Afgan [eds.], Heat and mass transfer in the biosphere, 104-119. John Wiley, New York, New York, USA.
3. CAMPBELL, G. S. 1977. An introduction to environmental biophysics. Springer-Verlag, New York, New York, USA.
4. COUTTS, M. P. 1983. Root architecture and tree stability. Plant and Soil 71: 171-188.
5. DUPUY, L., T. FOURCAUD, AND A. STOKES. 2005. A numerical investigation into the influence of soil type and root architecture on tree anchorage. Plant and Soil 278: 119-134.
6. ENNOS, A. R. 1993. The scaling of root anchorage. Journal of Theoretical Biology 161: 61-75.
7. ENNOS, A. R. 2000. The mechanics of root anchorage. Advances in Botanical Research Incorporating Advances in Plant Pathology 33: 133-157.
8. ENQUIST, B. J., J. H. BROWN, AND G. B. WEST. 1998. Allometric scaling of plant energetics and population density. Nature 395: 163-165.
9. ENQUIST, B. J., AND K. J. NIKLAS. 2001. Invariant scaling relations across tree-dominated communities. Nature 410: 655-660.
10. ENQUIST, B. J., AND K. J. NIKLAS. 2002. Global allocation rules for patterns of biomass partitioning across seed plants. Science 295: 1517-1520.
11. FRASER, A. I. 1962. Wind tunnel studies of the forces acting on the crowns of small trees. Report Forestry Research (UK) 1962: 178-183.
12. GARDINER, B. A., G. R. STACEY, R. E. BELCHER, AND C. J. WOOD. 1997. Field and wind tunnel assessments of the implications of respacing and thinning for tree stability. Forestry 70: 233-252.
13. HERBIG, A., G. SINN, AND L. WESSOLLY. 1988. Zur Standsicherheit von Bäumen im städtischen Bereich. Natürliche Konstruktionen. Leichtbau in Architektur und Nature Mitteilung, SFB 230: 39-57.
14. MAYHEAD, G. J. 1973. Some drag coefficients for British forest trees derived from wind tunnel studies. Agricultural Meteorology 12: 123-130.
15. MCCULLOH, K. A., AND J. S. SPERRY. 2005. Patterns in hydraulic architecture and their implications for transport efficiency. Tree Physiology 25: 257-267.
16. MCMAHON, T. A. 1973. The mechanical design of trees. Science 233: 92-102.
17. MCMAHON, T. A., AND R. E. KRONAUER. 1976. Tree structures: deducing the principle of mechanical design. Journal of Theoretical Biology 59: 443-466.
18. MEINZER, F. C. 2003. Functional convergence in plant responses to the environment. Oecologia 134: 1-11.
19. NIKLAS, K. J. 1992. Plant biomechanics: an engineering approach to plant form and function. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
20. NIKLAS, K. J. 1994. Plant allometry: the scaling of form and process. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
21. NIKLAS, K. J. 1995. Size-dependent allometry of tree height, diameter and trunk-taper. Annals of Botany 75: 217-227.
22. NIKLAS, K. J. 2003. Reexamination of a canonical model for plant organ biomass partitioning. American Journal of Botany 90: 250-254.
23. NIKLAS, K. J. 2004. Plant allometry: is there a grand unifying theory? Biological Review 79: 871-889.
24. NIKLAS, K. J., AND B. J. ENQUIST. 2001. Invariant scaling relationships for interspecific plant biomass production rates and body size. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 98: 2922-2927.
25. NIKLAS, K. J., AND B. J. ENQUIST. 2002a. Canonical rules for plant organ biomass partitioning and growth allocation. American Journal of Botany 89: 812-819.
26. NIKLAS, K. J., AND B. J. ENQUIST. 2002b. On the vegetative biomass partitioning of seed plant leaves, stems, and roots. American Naturalist 159: 482-497.
27. NIKLAS, K. J., F. MOLINA-FREANER, C. TINOCO-OJANGUREN, AND D. J. PAOLILLO JR. 2002. The biomechanics of Pachycereus pringlei root systems. American Journal of Botany 89: 12-21.
28. NIKLAS, K. J., AND H.-C. SPATZ. 2000. Wind-induced stresses in cherry trees: evidence against the hypothesis of constant stress levels. Trees 14: 230-237.
29. NIKLAS, K. J., AND H.-C. SPATZ. 2004. Growth and hydraulic (not mechanical) constraints govern the scaling of tree height and mass. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 101: 15661-15663.
30. PELTOLA, H. S., A. S KELLOMÄKI, M HASSINEN, LEMETTINEN, AND J. AHO. 1993. Swaying of trees as caused by wind: analysis of field measurements. Silva Fennica 27: 113-126.
31. PUTZ, F. E., P. D. COLEY, K. LU, A. MONTALVO, AND A. AIELLO. 1983. Uprooting and snapping of trees: structural determinants and ecological consequences. Canadian Journal of Botany 13: 1011-1020.
32. ROUSE, H. 1946. Elementary mechanics of fluids. John Wiley, New York, New York, USA.
33. SCHENK, H. J., AND R. B. JACKSON. 2002. Rooting depths, lateral root spreads and below-ground/above-ground allometries of plants in water-limited ecosystems. Journal of Ecology 90: 480-494.
34. SPATZ, H.-C., AND T. SPECK. 1994. Mechanische Eigenschaften von Hohlrohren am Beispiel von Gräsern. In W. Nachtigall [ed.], BIONA-report 9. Technische Biologie und Bionik 2, 91-132. Akad. Wiss. u. Lit. Mainz. Fischer, Stuttgart, Germany.
35. SPATZ, H.-C., AND F. BRÜCHERT. 2000. Basic biomechanics of self-supporting plants: wind loads and gravitational loads on a Norway spruce tree. Forest Ecology and Management 135: 33-44.
36. VOGEL, S. 1981. Life in moving fluids: the physical biology of flow. Willard Grant Press, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
37. VOGEL, S. 1992. Twist-to-bend ratios and cross-sectional shapes of petioles and stems. Journal of Experimental Botany 43: 1527-1532.
38. VOGEL, S. 1995. Twist-to-bend ratios of woody structures. Journal of Experimental Botany 46: 981-985.
39. WAINWRIGHT, S. A., W. D. BIGGS, J. D. CURREY, AND J. M. GOSLINE. 1976. Mechanical design in organisms. John Wiley, New York, New York, USA.
40. WOOD, C. J. 1995. Understanding wind forces on trees. In M. P. Coutts and J. Grace [eds.], Wind and trees, 133-164. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.