Gene flow, invasiveness, and ecological impact of genetically modified crops

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Volumn 1168, Issue , 2009, Pages 72-99

  Warwick, Suzanne I ^a   Beckie, Hugh J ^b   Hall, Linda M ^c  

^a AGRICULTURE AND AGRI FOOD CANADA   (Canada)

^b SASKATOON RESEARCH CENTRE   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Abiotic stress tolerance; Biotic stress tolerance; Fitness; Gene flow; Genetically modified crops; Invasiveness; Risk assessment

Indexed keywords

HERBICIDE; NITROGEN;

ABIOTIC STRESS; BIOTIC STRESS; COLD TOLERANCE; DISEASE RESISTANCE; DROUGHT; FERTILITY; FITNESS; GENE FLOW; GENETIC TRAIT; HOST; INSECT; PLANT ECOLOGY; POLLEN; POPULATION SIZE; PREDICTION; REVIEW; SALT TOLERANCE; SEED; SPECIES INVASION; TRANSGENIC PLANT; WEED; WILD TYPE;

HEXAPODA;

EID: 67649661928     PISSN: 00778923     EISSN: 17496632     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04576.x     Document Type: Review

References (259)

1. Addison, S. J., Farrell, T., Roberts, G. N., et al 2007). Roadside surveys support predictions of negligible naturalisation potential for cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) in north-east Australia. Weed Res., 47, 192 201.
2. Al-Ahmad, H., Dwyer, J., Moloney, M., et al 2006). Mitigation of establishment of Brassica napus transgenes in volunteers using a tandem construct containing a selectively unfit gene. Plant Biotechnol. J., 4, 7 21.
3. Al-Ahmad, H., & Gressel, J. (2004). Mitigation using a tandem construct containing a selectively unfit gene of establishment precludes establishment of Brassica napus transgenes in hybrids and backcrosses with weedy Brassica rapa. Plant Biotechnol. J., 4, 23 33.
4. Allainguillaume, J., Alexander, M., Bullock, J. M., et al 2006). Fitness of hybrids between rapeseed (Brassica napus) and wild Brassica rapa in natural habitats. Mol. Ecol., 15, 1175 1184.
5. Ammitzbøll, H., Mikkelsen, T. N., & Jørgensen, R. B. (2005). Transgene expression and fitness of hybrids between GM oilseed rape and Brassica rapa. Environ. Biosafety Res., 4, 3 12.
6. Ampong-Nyarko, K., & de Datta, S. K. (1993). Effects of nitrogen application on growth, nitrogen use efficiency and rice-weed interaction. Weed Res., 33, 269 276.
7. Anderson, R. L., & Soper, G. (2003). Review of volunteer wheat (Triticum aestivum) seedling emergence and seed longevity in soil. Weed Technol., 17, 620 626.
8. Andow, D. A., & Zwahlen, C. (2006). Assessing environmental risks of transgenic plants. Ecol. Lett., 9, 196 214.
9. Angevin, F., Klein, E. K., Choimet, C., et al 2008). Modelling impacts of cropping systems and climate on maize cross-pollination in agricultural landscapes: The MAPOD model. Eur. J. Agron., 28, 471 484.
10. Anonymous 2006). United States [US] Department of Energy. Breaking the biological barriers to cellulosicethanol: a joint research agenda. DOE/SC-0095, Office of Science and Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC.
11. Anonymous 2008a). All Field Tests Search Criteria http://www.isb.vt.edu/ cfdocs/fieldtests1.cfm 2008b). Arcadia Biosciences. Nitrogen Efficient Crops http://arcadiabio.com/nitrogen.php 2008c). Australian Life Scientist - Grain Biotech Harvests First Salt-Resistant Wheat Crop http://www.biotechnews.com.au/ index.php/id;1548103697 2008d). Breeding Better Cotton http://www.ars.usda.gov/ is/AR/archive/feb08/fabric0208.htm 2008e). Canadian Food Inspection Agency [CFIA] - PNTs Which Have Been Grown in Confined Research Field Trials http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/plaveg/bio/confine.shtml 2008f). China Releases Biotech Rice, Bars Biofuel to Protect Food Supply http://www. americandaily.com/article/22768 2008g). Drought Resistant Wheat Beats Australian Heat http://environment.newscientist.com/channel/earth/climate-change/ mg19826623.500-droughtresistant-wheat-beats-australian-heat.html 2008h). GreenBio. New Flood-Tolerant Rice http://greenbio.checkbiotech.org/news/2008-07- 28/New-flood-tolerant-rice/ 2008i). Monsanto ∼ Our Products ∼ R&D Pipeline http://www.monsanto.com/products/pipeline.asp 2008j). OGTR - DIR 080/2007 - Limited and Controlled Release of Wheat Genetically Modified for Drought Tolerance http://www.ogtr.gov.au/internet/ogtr/publishing.nsf/Content/ dir080-2007 Ellstrand, N. C. (1996). Crop-to-weed gene flow in the genus Sorghum (Poaceae): Spontaneous interspecific hybridization between johnsongrass, Sorghum halepense, and crop sorghum, S. bicolor. Am. J. Bot., 83, 1153 1160.
12. Austerlitz, F., Dick, C. W., Dutech, C., et al 2004). Using genetic markers to estimate the pollen dispersal curve. Mol. Ecol., 13, 937 954.
13. Baker, H. G. (1965). Characteristics and modes of origin of weeds. In H. G. Baker & G. L. Stebbins (Eds The Genetics of Colonizing Species (pp. 147 172). New York : Academic Press.
14. Baker, H. G. (1974). The evolution of weeds. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 5, 1 24.
15. Baker, H. G. (1991). The continuing evolution of weeds. Econ. Bot., 45, 445 449
16. Bartsch, D., Brand, U., Morak, C., et al 2001). Biosafety of hybrids between transgenic virus-resistant sugar beet and Swiss chard. Ecol. Appl., 11, 142 147.
17. Basu, C., Halfhill, M. D., Mueller, T. C., et al 2004). Weed genomics: new tools to understand weed biology. Trends Plant Sci., 9, 391 398.
18. Beckie, H. J., & Hall, L. M. (2008). Simple to complex: modelling crop pollen-mediated gene flow. Plant Sci., 175, 615 628.
19. Beckie, H. J., & Owen, M. D. K. (2007). Herbicide-resistant crops as weeds in North America. CAB Reviews: Persp. Agric., Veter. Sci., Nutr. Natl. Resour. 2. No. 044.
20. Beckie, H. J., Warwick, S. I., Nair, H., et al 2003). Gene flow in commercial fields of herbicide-resistant canola (Brassica napus). Ecol. Appl., 13, 1276 1294.
21. Beckie, H. J., Séguin-Swartz, G., Nair, H., et al 2004). Multiple herbicide-resistant canola can be controlled by alternative herbicides. Weed Sci., 52, 152 157.
22. Beckie, H. J., Harker, K. N., Hall, L. M., et al 2006). A decade of herbicide-resistant crops in Canada. Can. J. Plant Sci., 86, 1243 1264.
23. Begg, G. S., Hockaday, S., McNicol, J. W., et al 2006). Modelling the persistence of volunteer oilseed rape (Brassica napus). Ecol. Modell., 198, 195 207.
24. Begg, J. E., & Turner, N. C. (1976). Crop water deficits. Adv. Agron., 28, 161 217.
25. Bergelson, J. (1994). Changes in fecundity do not predict invasiveness: a model study of transgenic plants. Ecology, 75, 249 252.
26. Bergelson, J., & Purrington, C. B. (1996). Surveying patterns in the cost of resistance in plants. Am. Nat., 148, 536 558.
27. Bergelson, J., Purrington, C. B., Palm, C. J., et al 1996). Costs of resistance: a test using transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana. Proc. Biol. Sci., 263, 1659 1663.
28. Bervillé, A., Muller, M.-H., Poinso, B., et al 2005). Ferality - risks of gene flow between sunflower and other Helianthus species. In J. Gressel (Ed Crop Ferality and Volunteerism (pp. 209 239). London : CRC Press.
29. Blackshaw, R. E., Brandt, R. N., Janzen, H. H., et al 2003). Differential response of weed species to added nitrogen. Weed Sci., 51, 532 539.
30. Braidek, J. T., Fedec, P., & Jones, D. (1984). Field survey of halophytic plants of disturbed sites on the Canadian Prairies. Can. J. Plant Sci., 64, 745 752.
31. Brookes, G., & Barfoot, P. (2004). Co-existence in North American Agriculture: Can GM Crops Be Grown with Conventional and Organic Crops? (23 pp PG Economics, Ltd., Dorchester, UK.
32. Burdon, J. J., & Thrall, P. H. (2003). The fitness costs to plants of resistance to pathogens. Genome Biol., 4, 227.
33. Burke, E. J., Brown, S. J., & Christidis, N. (2006). Modeling the recent evolution of global drought and projections for the twenty-first century with the Hadley centre climate model. J. Hydrometeorol., 7, 1113 1125.
34. Burke, J. M. (2004). When good plants go bad.... Evolution, 58, 1637 1638.
35. Burke, J. M., & Rieseberg, L. H. (2003). Fitness effects of transgenic disease resistance in sunflowers. Science, 300, 1250.
36. Busi, R., Yu, Q., Barrett-Lennard, R., et al 2008). Long distance pollen-mediated flow of herbicide resistance genes in Lolium rigidum. Theor. Appl. Genet., 117, 1281 1290.
37. Campbell, L. G. & Snow, A. A. (2006). Competition alters life history and increases the relative fecundity of crop-wild radish hybrids (Raphanus spp.). New Phytol., 173, 648 660.
38. Carlson, H. L., & Hill, J. E. (1985). Wild oat (Avena fatua) competition with spring wheat: effects of nitrogen fertilization. Weed Sci., 34, 29 33.
39. Caswell, H. (2001). Matrix Population Models: Construction, Analysis, and Interpretation (2nd ed., 722 pp). Sunderland, MA : Sinauer Associates.
40. Champolivier, J., Gasquez, J., Messéan, A., et al 1999). Management of transgenic crops within the cropping system. In P. J. W. Lutman (Ed Gene Flow and Agriculture - Relevance for Transgenic Crops (Vol. 72, pp. 233 240). BCPC Symposium Proceedings. Staffordshire, UK : British Crop Protection Council, University of Keele.
41. Chandler, S., & Dunwell, J. M. (2008). Gene flow, risk assessment and the environmental release of transgenic plants. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci., 27, 25 49.
42. Chapman, M. A., & Burke, J. M. (2006). Letting the gene out of the bottle: the population genetics of genetically modified crops. New Phytol., 170, 429 443.
43. Chapotin, S. M., & Wolt, J. D. (2007). Genetically modified crops for the bioeconomy: meeting public and regulatory expectations. Transgenic Res., 16, 675 688.
44. Chèvre, A.-M., Ammitzbøll, H., Breckling, B., et al 2004). A review on interspecific gene flow from oilseed rape to wild relatives. In H. C. M. den Nijs, D. Bartsch, & J. Sweet (Eds Introgression from Genetically Modified Plants into Wild Relatives (pp. 235 251). Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK : CABI Publishing.
45. Clarke, J. M. (1985). Harvesting losses of spring wheat in windrower combine and direct combine harvesting systems. Agron J., 77, 13 17.
46. Clifton-Brown, J. C., Breuer, J., & Jones, M. B. (2007). Carbon mitigation by the energy crop, Miscanthus. Glob. Change Biol., 13, 2296 2307.
47. Colautti, R., Grigorovich, I. A., & MacIsaac, H. J. (2006). Propagule pressure: a null model for biological invasions. Biol. Invasions, 8, 1 15.
48. Colbach, N., Clermont-Dauphin, C., & Meynard, J. M. (2001a). GeneSys: A model of the influence of cropping system on gene escape from herbicide tolerant rapeseed crops to rape volunteers. I. Temporal evolution of a population of rapeseed volunteers in a field. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 3, 235 253.
49. Colbach, N., Clermont-Dauphin, C., & Meynard, J. M. (2001b). GeneSys: a model of the influences of cropping system on gene escape from herbicide tolerant rapeseed crops to rape volunteers. II. Genetic exchanges among volunteer and cropped populations in a small region. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 3, 255 270.
50. Crawley, M. J., Hails, R. S., Rees, M., et al 1993). Ecology of transgenic oilseed rape in natural habitats. Nature, 363, 620 623.
51. Crawley, M. J., Harvey, P. H., & Purvis, A. (1996). Comparative ecology of the native and alien floras of the British Isles. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci., 351, 1251 1259.
52. Cummings, C. L., & Alexander, H. M. (2002). Population ecology of wild sunflowers: effects of seed density and post-dispersal vertebrate seed predation on numbers of plants per patch and seed production. Oecologia, 130, 272 280.
53. Daehler, C. C. (1998). The taxonomic distribution of invasive angiosperm plants: ecological insights and comparison to agricultural weeds. Biol. Conserv., 84, 167 180.
54. Daehler, C. C. (2003). Performance comparisons of co-occuring native and alien invasive plants: implications for conservation and restoration. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 34, 183 211.
55. Daehler, C. C., Denslow, J. S., Ansari, S., et al 2004). A risk-assessment system for screening out invasive pest plants from Hawaii and other Pacific Islands. Conserv. Biol., 18, 360 368.
56. Daehler, C. C., & Strong, D. R. (1993). Prediction and biological invasions. Trends Ecol. Evol., 8, 380.
57. Daniell, H. (2002). Molecular strategies for gene containment in transgenic crops. Nat. Biotechnol., 30, 581 586.
58. De Corby, K. A., Van Acker, R. C., Brûlé-Babel, A. L., et al 2007). Emergence timing and recruitment of volunteer spring wheat. Weed Sci., 55, 60 69.
59. Deen, W., Allan, H., Shropshire, C., et al 2006). Control of volunteer glyphosate-resistant corn (Zea mays) in glyphosate-resistant soybean (Glycine max). Weed Technol., 20, 261 266.
60. Diggle A. J., Neve, P. B., & Smith, F. P. (2003). Herbicides used in combination can reduce the probability of herbicide resistance in finite weed populations. Weed Res., 43, 371 382.
61. DiTomaso, J. M., Barney, J. N., & Fox, A. M. (2007). Biofuel Feedstocks: The Risk of Future Invasions. CAST 2007, QTA2007-1.
62. DiTommaso, A. (2004). Germination behavior of common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia) populations across a range of salinities. Weed Sci., 52, 1002 1009.
63. Dlugosch, K. M., & Parker, I. M. (2008). Founding events in species invasions: genetic variation, adaptive evolution, and the role of multiple introductions. Mol. Ecol., 17, 431 449.
64. Dlugosch, K. M., & Rieseberg, L. H. (2008). Models and methods for evaluating invasiveness. In Plant Risk Assessment Challenges of the 21st Century: New Crops and New Uses. Proceedings, Science Symposium, March 12-14, 2008. Ottawa, ON : Canadian Food Inspection Agency.
65. Doebley, J. (1990). Molecular evidence for gene flow among Zea species. Bioscience, 40, 443 448.
66. Downey, K., & Beckie, H. (2002). Isolation effectiveness in canola pedigree seed production. Report to Canadian Seed Growers' Association. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada. 14 pp.
67. Dyer, W. E., Chee, P. W., & Fay, P. K. (1993). Rapid germination of sulfonylurea-resistant Kochia scoparia (L.) Schrad. acessions is associated with elevated seed levels of branched chain amino acids. Weed Sci., 41, 18 22.
68. Ellstrand, N. C. (2001). When transgenes wander, should we worry? Plant Physiol., 125, 1543 1545.
69. Ellstrand, N. C. (2003). Dangerous Liaisons? When Cultivated Plants Mate with Their Wild Relatives (244 pp.). Baltimore, MD : The Johns Hopkins University Press.
70. Ellstrand, N. C., & Hoffman, C. A. (1990). Hybridization as an avenue for escape of engineered genes. Bioscience, 40, 438 442.
71. Ellstrand, N. C, Prentice, H. C., & Hancock, J. F. (1999). Gene flow and introgression from domesticated plants into their wild relatives. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 30, 539 563.
72. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) 2004). FAO Production Yearbook. Rome : FAO.
73. Forcella, F. (1985). Final distribution is related to rate of spread in alien weeds. Weed Res., 25, 181 191.
74. Ford, C. S., Allainguillaume, J., Grilli-Chantler, P., et al 2006). Spontaneous gene flow from rapeseed (Brassica napus) to wild Brassica oleracea. Proc. Biol. Sci., 273, 3111 3115.
75. Francki, M. G., Walker, E., Forster, J. W., et al 2006). Fructosyltransferase and invertase genes evolved by gene duplication and rearrangements: rice, perennial ryegrass, and wheat gene families. Genome, 49, 1081 1091.
76. Frappier, B., & Eckert, R. T. (2003). Utilizing the USDA PLANTS database to predict exotic woody plant invasiveness in New Hampshire. For. Ecol. Manage., 185, 207 215.
77. Friesen, L. F., Beckie, H. J., Warwick, S. I., et al 2009). The biology of Canadian weeds. Kochia scoparia (L.) Schrad. Can. J. Plant Sci., 89, 141 167.
78. Friesen, L. F., Nelson, A. G., & Van Acker, R. C. (2003). Evidence of contamination of pedigreed canola (Brassica napus) seedlots in western Canada with genetically engineered herbicide resistance traits. Agron. J., 95, 1342 1347.
79. Fuchs, M., Chirco, E. M., McFerson, J. R., et al 2004). Comparative fitness of a wild squash species and three generations of hybrids between wild x virus-resistant transgenic squash. Environ. Biosafety Res., 3, 17 28.
80. Funk, J. L., & Vitousek, P. M. (2007). Resource-use efficiency and plant invasion in low-resource systems. Nature, 446, 1079 1081.
81. Gaines, T., Preston, C., Byrne, P., et al 2007). Adventitious presence of herbicide resistant wheat in certified and farm-saved seed lots. Crop Sci., 47, 751 756.
82. Gaines, T. A., Henry, W. B., Byrne, P. F., et al 2008). Jointed goatgrass (Aegilops cylindrica) by imidazolinone-resistant wheat hybridization under field conditions. Weed Sci., 56, 32 36.
83. Garcia-Alonso, M., Jacobs, E., Raybould, A., et al 2006). A tiered system for assessing the risk of genetically modified plants to non-target organisms. Environ. Biosafety Res., 5, 57 65.
84. Gealy, D. (2005). Gene movement between rice (Oryza sativa) and weedy rice (Oryza sativa) - a U.S. temperate rice perspective. In J. Gressel (Ed Crop Ferality and Volunteerism (pp. 323 354). London : CRC Press.
85. Godfree, R. C., Chu, P. W. G., & Woods, M. J. (2004). White clover (Trifolium repens) and associated viruses in the subalpine region of south-eastern Australia: implications for GMO risk assessment. Aust. J. Bot., 52, 1 11.
86. Godfree, R. C., Thrall, P. H., & Young, A. G. (2007). Enemy release after introduction of disease-resistant genotypes into plant-pathogen systems. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 104, 2756 2760.
87. Goggi, A. S., Lopez-Sanchez, H., Caragea, P., et al 2007). Gene flow in maize fields with different local pollen densities. Int. J. Biometeorol., 51, 493 503.
88. Gomord, V., Chamberlain, P., Jefferis, R., et al 2005). Biopharmaceutical production in plants: problems, solutions and opportunities. Trends Biotechnol., 23, 559 565.
89. Good, A. G., Johnson, S. J., dePauw, M., et al 2007). Engineering nitrogen use efficiency with alanine aminotransferase. Can. J. Bot., 85, 252 262.
90. Good, A. G., Shrawat, A. K., & Muench, D. G. (2004). Can less yield more? Is reducing nutrient input into the environment compatible with maintaining crop production? Trends Plant Sci., 9, 597 605.
91. Goodwin, B. J., McAllister, A. J., & Fahrig, L. (1999). Predicting invasiveness of plant species based on biological information. Conserv. Biol., 13, 422 426.
92. Grant, V. (1981). Plant Speciation (2nd ed.). New York : Columbia University Press.
93. Gressel, J. (1999). Tandem constructs: preventing the rise of superweeds. Trends Biotechnol., 17, 361 366.
94. Gressel, J. (Ed 2005). Crop Ferality and Volunteerism. London : CRC Press.
95. Gruber, S., & Claupein, W. (2007). Fecundity of volunteer oilseed rape and estimation of potential gene dispersal by a practice-related model. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 119, 401 408.
96. Gueritaine, G., Sester, M., Eber, F., et al 2002). Fitness of backcross six of hybrids between transgenic oilseed rape (Brassica napus) and wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum). Mol. Ecol., 11, 1419 1426.
97. Gulden, R. H., Shirtliffe, S. J., & Thomas, A. G. (2003a). Harvest losses of canola (Brassica napus) cause large seedbank inputs. Weed Sci., 51, 83 86.
98. Gulden, R. H., Shirtliffe, S. J., & Thomas, A. G. (2003b). Secondary seed dormancy prolongs persistence of volunteer canola in western Canada. Weed Sci., 51, 904 913.
99. Gulden, R. H., Thomas, A. G., & Shirtliffe, S. J. (2004). Secondary dormancy, temperature, and burial depth regulate seedbank dynamics in canola. Weed Sci., 52, 382 388.
100. Hails, R. S. (2000). Genetically modified plants- the debate continues. Trends Ecol. Evol., 15, 14 18.
101. Hails, R. S., & Morley, K. (2005). Genes invading new populations: a risk assessment perspective. Trends Ecol. Evol., 20, 245 252.
102. Halfhill M. D., Sutherland, J. P., Moon, H. S., et al 2005). Growth, productivity, and competitiveness of introgressed weedy Brassica rapa hybrids selected for the presence of Bt cry1AC and gfp transgenes. Mol. Ecol., 14, 3177 3189.
103. Hall, L., Topinka, K., Huffman, J., et al 2000). Pollen flow between herbicide-resistant Brassica napus is the cause of multiple resistant B. napus volunteers. Weed Sci., 48, 688 694.
104. Hall, L. M., Good, A., Beckie, H. J., et al 2003). Gene flow in herbicide-resistant canola (Brassica napus): the Canadian experience. In T. Lelley, E. Balazs & M. Tepfer (Eds Ecological Impact of GMO Dissemination in Agro-Ecosystems (pp. 57 66). Austria : Facultas Verlags- und Buchhandels AG.
105. Hall, L. M., Rahman, M. H., Gulden, R. H., et al 2005). Volunteer oilseed rape - will herbicide resistance traits assist ferality? In J. Gressel (Ed Crop Ferality and Volunteerism (pp. 59 79). London : CRC Press.
106. Handley, R. J., Steinger, T., Treier, U. A., et al 2008). Testing the evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA) hypothesis in a novel framework. Ecology, 89, 407 417.
107. Hansen L. B., Siegismund, H. R., & Jørgenson, R. B. (2001). Introgression between oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) and its weedy relative B. rapa L. in a natural population. Genet. Resour. Crop Evol., 48, 621 627.
108. Hansen, L. B., Siegismund, H. R., & Jørgensen, R. B. (2003). Progressive introgression between Brassica napus (oilseed rape) and B. rapa. Heredity, 91, 276 283.
109. Hanson D. E., Ball, D. A., & Mallory-Smith, C. A. (2002). Herbicide resistance in jointed goatgrass (Aegilops cylindrica): Simulated responses to agronomic practices. Weed Technol., 16, 156 163.
110. Harker, K. N., Clayton, G. W., Blackshaw, R. E., et al 2005). Glyphosate-resistant wheat persistence in western Canadian cropping systems. Weed Sci., 53, 846 859.
111. Harker, K. N., Clayton, G. W., Blackshaw, R. E., et al 2006). Persistence of glyphosate-resistant canola in western Canadian cropping systems. Agron. J., 98, 107 119.
112. 2 hybrids between weedy Brassica rapa and oilseed rape (B. napus). Heredity, 81, 436 443.
113. Hauser, T. P., Damgaard, C., & Jørgensen, R. B. (2003). Frequency-dependent fitness of hybrids between oilseed rape (Brassica napus) and weedy B. rapa (Brassicaceae). Am. J. Bot., 90, 571 578.
114. 1 hybrids between weedy Brassica rapa and oilseed rape (B. napus). Heredity, 81, 429 435.
115. Hayes, K. R., & Barry, S. C. (2008). Are there any consistent predictors of invasion success? Biol. Invasions, 10, 483 506.
116. Haygood, R., Ives, A. R., & Andow, D. A. (2003). Consequences of recurrent gene flow from crops to wild relatives. Proc. Biol. Sci., 270, 1879 1886.
117. Haygood, R., Ives, A. R., & Andow, D. A. (2004). Population genetics of transgene containment. Ecol. Lett., 7, 213 220.
118. Heap, I. M. (2008). International Survey of Herbicide Resistant Weeds http://www.weedscience.org Waines, J. G. (2004). Hybridization and introgression between bread wheat and wild and weedy relatives in North America. Crop Sci., 44, 1145 1155.
119. Henry, C., Morgan, D., Weekes, R., et al 2003). Farm scale evaluations of GM crops: monitoring gene flow from GM crops to non-GM equivalent crops in the vicinity. Part I. Forage maize. DEFRA report, Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Dorchester, UK http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/gm/research/pdf/epg-1-5-138. pdf 157.
120. Herron, P. M., Martine, C. T., Latimer, A. M., et al 2007). Invasive plants and their ecological strategies: predictions and explanation of woody plant invasion in New England. Divers. Distrib., 13, 633 644.
121. Hills, M. J., Hall, L., Arnison, P. G., et al 2007). Genetic use restriction technologies (GURTs): strategies to impede transgene movement. Trends Plant Sci., 12, 177 183.
122. Hoffmann, A. A., & Blows, M. W. (1994). Species borders: ecological and evolutionary perspectives. Trends Ecol. Evol., 9, 223 227.
123. Hu, H., Dai, M., Yao, J., et al 2006). Overexpressing a NAM, ATAF, and CUC (NAC) transcription factor enhances drought resistance and salt tolerance in rice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 103, 12987 12992.
124. Hüsken, A., & Dietz-Pfeilstetter, A. (2007). Pollen-mediated intraspecific gene flow from herbicide resistant oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). Transgenic Res., 16, 557 569.
125. Hwang, B. C., & Lauenroth, W. K. (2008). Effect of nitrogen, water and neighbour density on the growth of Hesperis matronalis and two native perennials. Biol. Invasions, 10, 771 779.
126. Inderjit, & Drake, J. A. (2006). The ecology of nonnative invasive plant species: are there consistent patterns? Persp. Agric. Veter. Sci. Nutr. Natl. Resour. 1. No. 036.
127. Jackson, M. W., Stinchcombe, J. R., Korves, T. M., et al 2004). Costs and benefits of cold tolerance in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana. Mol. Ecol., 13, 3609 3615.
128. James, C. (2008). Global status of commercialized biotech/GM crops: (2007). ISAAA Briefs No. 37-2007. ISAAA (International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications), Ithaca, NY http://www.isaaa.org/ Resources/publications/briefs/37/reportsummary/default.html Conner, A. J. (2005). Population variability in wild turnip (Brassica rapa var. oleifera) for interspecific hybridization with herbicide resistant rape (Brassica napus pollen). N. Z. J. Crop Hortic. Sci., 33, 9 16.
129. Johnson, K. L., Raybould, A. F., Hudson, M. D., et al 2007). How does scientific risk assessment of GM crops fit within the wider risk analysis? Trends Plant Sci., 12, 1 5.
130. Jørgensen, S. E. (2008). Overview of the model types available for development of ecological models. Ecol. Modell., 215, 3 9.
131. Keane, R. M., & Crawley, M. J. (2002). Exotic plant invasions and the enemy release hypothesis. Trends Ecol. Evol., 17, 164 169.
132. Keeler, K. H. (1989). Can genetically engineered crops become weeds? Biotechnology, 7, 1134 1139.
133. Knispel, A. L., McLachlan, S. M., Van Acker, R. C., et al 2008). Gene flow and multiple herbicide resistance in escaped canola populations. Weed Sci., 56, 72 80.
134. Kolar, C. S., & Lodge, D. M. (2001). Progress in invasion biology: predicting invaders. Trends Ecol. Evol., 16, 199 204.
135. Korves, T. M., & Bergelson, J. (2004). A novel cost of R gene resistance in the presence of the disease. Am. Nat., 163, 489 504.
136. Kramer, P. J. (1980). Drought, stress, and the origin of adaptations. In N. C. Turner & P. J. Kramer (Eds Adaptation of Plants to Water and High Temperature Stress (pp. 7 20). New York : Wiley.
137. Krivanek, M., & Pysek, P. (2006). Predicting invasions by woody species in a temperate zone: a test of three risk assessment schemes in the Czech Republic (Central Europe). Divers. Distrib., 12, 319 327.
138. Kuparinen, A., & Schurr, F. M. (2008). Assessing the risk of gene flow from genetically modified trees carrying mitigation transgenes. Biol. Invasions, 10, 281 290.
139. Lai, Z., Kane, N. C., Zou, Y., et al 2008). Natural variation in gene expression between wild and weedy populations of Helianthus annuus. Genetics, 179, 1881 1890.
140. Lee, C. E. (2002). Evolutionary genetics of invasive species. Trends Ecol. Evol. 17 : 386 391.
141. Leeson, J. Y., Thomas, A. G., Hall, L. M., et al 2005). Prairie Weed Surveys of Cereal, Oilseed and Pulse Crops from the 1970s to the 2000s. Weed Survey Series Publication 05-1CD, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
142. Légère, A. (2005). Risks and consequences of gene flow from herbicide-resistant crops: canola (Brassica napus L.) as a case study. Pest Manag. Sci., 61, 292 300.
143. Letourneau, D. K., Robinson, G. S., & Hagen, J. A. (2003). Bt crops: predicting effects of escaped transgenes on the fitness of wild plants and their herbivores. Environ. Biosafety Res., 2, 219 246.
144. Lin, C., Fang, J., Xu, X., et al 2008). A built-in strategy for containment of transgenic plants: creation of selectively terminable transgene rice. PLoS ONE, 3, 1 6.
145. Linder, C. R., Taha, I., Seiler, G. J., et al 1998). Long-term introgression of crop genes into wild sunflower populations. Theor. Appl. Genet., 96, 339 347.
146. Lopez-Granados, F., & Lutman, P. J. W. (1998). Effect of environmental conditions on the dormancy and germination of volunteer oilseed rape seed (Brassica napus). Weed Sci., 46, 419 423.
147. Luna, S., Figueroa, V. J., Baltazar, M. B., et al 2001). Maize pollen longevity and distance isolation requirements for effective pollen control. Crop Sci., 41, 1551 1557.
148. Lutman, P. J. W., Freeman, S. E., & Pekrun, C. (2003). The long-term persistence of seeds of oilseed rape (Brassica napus) in arable fields. J. Agric. Sci., 141, 231 240.
149. Lutman, P. J. W., & Lopez-Granados, F. (1998). The persistence of seeds of oilseed rape (Brassica napus). In G. T. Champion, A. C. Grundy, N. E. Jones, et al. (Eds.), Weed Seedbanks: Determination, Dynamics and Manipulation (pp. 147 152). Oxford, UK : Association of Applied Biologists, St. Catherine's College.
150. Ma, B. L., Subedi, K. D., & Reid, L. M. (2004). Extent of cross-fertilization in maize by pollen from neighboring transgenic hybrids. Crop Sci., 44, 1273 1282.
151. Ma, J. K., Chikwamba, R., Sparrow, P., et al 2005). Plant-derived pharmaceuticals - the road forward. Trends Plant Sci., 10, 580 585.
152. Mack, R. N. (1996). Predicting the identity and fate of plant invaders: emergent and emerging approaches. Biol. Conserv., 78, 107 121.
153. Maillet, J., & Lopez-Garcia, C. (2000). What criteria are relevant for predicting the invasive capacity of a new agricultural weed? The case of invasive American species in France. Weed Res., 40, 11 26.
154. Mallory-Smith, C., & Zapiola, M. (2008). Gene flow from glyphosate-resistant crops. Pest Manag. Sci., 64, 428 440.
155. Marvier, M. (2008). Pharmaceutical crops in California, benefits and risks. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev., 28, 1 9.
156. Maskell, L. C., Raybould, A. F., Cooper, J. I., et al 1999). Effects of turnip mosaic virus and turnip yellow mosaic virus on the survival, growth and reproduction of wild cabbage (Brassica oleracea). Ann. Appl. Ecol., 135, 401 407.
157. Mason, P., Braun, L., Warwick, S. I., et al 2003). Transgenic Bt-producing Brassica napus: Plutella xylostella selection pressure and fitness of weedy relatives. Environ. Biosafety Res., 2, 263 276.
158. Massinga, R. A., Al-Khatib, K., St. Amand, P., et al 2003). Gene flow from imidazolinone-resistant domesticated sunflower to wild relatives. Weed Sci., 51, 854 862.
159. Matus-Cádiz, M. A., Hucl, P., & Dupuis, B. (2007). Pollen-mediated gene flow in wheat at a commercial scale. Crop Sci., 47, 573 581.
160. Matus-Cádiz, M. A., Hucl, P., Horak, M. J., et al 2004). Gene flow in wheat at the field scale. Crop Sci., 44, 718 727.
161. McPherson, M. A., Yang, R.-C., Good, A. G., et al 2009). Potential for seed-mediated gene flow in agroecosystems from transgenic safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) intended for plant molecular farming. Transgenic Res., 18, 281 299.
162. Menchari, Y., Chauvel, B., Darmency, H., et al 2008). Fitness costs associated with three mutant acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase alleles endowing herbicide resistance in black-grass Alopecurus myosuroides. J. Appl. Ecol., 45, 939 947.
163. Mercer, K. L., Shaw, R. G., & Wyse, D. L. (2006). Increased germination of diverse crop-wild hybrid sunflower seeds. Ecol. Appl., 16, 845 854.
164. Messéan, A., Sausse, C., Gasquez, J., et al 2007). Occurrence of genetically modified oilseed rape seeds in the harvest of subsequent conventional oilseed rape over time. Eur. J. Agron., 27, 115 122.
165. Milbau, A., & Stout, J. C. (2008). Factors associated with alien plants transitioning from casual, to naturalized, to invasive. Conserv. Biol., 22, 308 317.
166. Moles, A. T., Gruber, M. A. M., & Bonser, S. P. (2008). A new framework for predicting invasive plant species. J. Ecol., 96, 13 17.
167. Morris, W. F., & Doak, D. F. (2002). Quantitative Conservation Biology: Theory and Practice of Population Viability Analysis (480 pp.). Sunderland, MA : Sinauer Associates.
168. Munns, R. (1993). Physiological processes limiting plant growth in saline soils: some dogmas and hypotheses. Plant Cell Environ., 16, 15 24.
169. Nelson, D., Repetti, P., Adams, T., et al 2007). Plant nuclear factor Y (NF-Y) B subunits confer drought tolerance and lead to improved maize yields on water-limited acres. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 104, 16450 16455.
170. Neve, P., Diggle, A. J., Smith, F. P., et al 2003a). Simulating evolution of glyphosate resistance in Lolium rigidum I: population biology of a rare resistance trait. Weed Res., 43, 404 417.
171. Neve, P., Diggle, A. J., Smith, F. P., et al 2003b). Simulating evolution of glyphosate resistance in Lolium rigidum II: Past, present and future glyphosate use in Australian cropping. Weed Res., 43, 418 427.
172. Newsome, A. E., & Noble, I. R. (1986). Ecological and physiological characters of invading species. In R. H. Groves & J. J. Burdon (Eds Ecology of Biological Invasion (pp. 1 17). Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press.
173. Nickson, T. E. (2008). Planning environmental risk assessment for genetically modified crops: problem formulation for stress-tolerant crops. Plant Physiol., 147, 494 502.
174. Nielson, R. L., McPherson, M. A., O'Donovan, J. T., et al 2009). Seed mediated gene flow in wheat: seed bank longevity in Western Canada. Weed Sci., 57, 124 132.
175. Owen, M. D. K. (2005). Maize and soybeans - controllable volunteerism without ferality? In J. B. Gressel (Ed Crop Ferality and Volunteerism (pp. 149 163). London : CRC Press.
176. Parker, I. M., & Kareiva, P. (1996). Assessing the risks of invasion for genetically engineered plants: acceptable evidence and reasonable doubt. Biol. Conserv., 78, 193 203.
177. Parrish, D. J., & Fike, J. H. (2005). The biology and agronomy of switchgrass for biofuels. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci., 24, 423 459.
178. Paterson, A. H., Schertz, K. F., Lin, Y.R., et al 1995). The weediness of wild plants: molecular analysis of genes influencing dispersal and persistence of johnson grass, Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 92, 6127 6131.
179. Patterson, D. T. (1995). Effects of environmental stress on weed/crop interactions. Weed Sci., 43, 483 490.
180. Pedersen, B. P., Neve, P., Andreasen, C., et al 2007). Ecological fitness of a glyphosate-resistant Lolium rigidum population: growth and seed production along a competition gradient. Basic Appl. Ecol., 8, 258 268.
181. Pedersen, J. F., Vogel, K. P., & Funnell, D. L. (2005). Impact of reduced lignin on plant fitness. Crop Sci., 45, 812 819.
182. Pekrun, C., & Lutman, P. J. W. (1998). The influence of post-harvest cultivation on the persistence of volunteer oilseed rape. In G. T. Champion, A. C. Grundy, N. E. Jones, et al. (Eds.), Weed Seedbanks: Determination, Dynamics and Manipulation (pp. 113 118). Oxford, UK : Association of Applied Biologists, St. Catherine's College.
183. Pekrun, C., Lutman, P. J. W., & Baeumer, K. (1997). Induction of secondary dormancy in rape seeds (Brassica napus L.) by prolonged imbibition under conditions of water stress or oxygen deficiency in darkness. Eur. J. Agron., 6, 245 255.
184. Perrins, J., Williamson, M., & Fitter, A. (1992). Do annual weeds have predictable characters? Acta Oecologia, 13, 517 533.
185. 1 hybrids when pollinating B. rapa seeds. Heredity, 89, 212 218.
186. Petit, L., Pagny, G., Baraige, F., et al 2007). Characterization of genetically modified maize in weakly contaminated seed batches and identification of the origin of the adventitious contamination. J. AOAC Int., 90, 1098 1106.
187. Pheloung, P. C., Williams, P. A., & Halloy, S. R. (1999). A weed risk assessment model for use as a biosecurity tool for evaluating plant introductions. J. Environ. Manag., 57, 239 251.
188. Pilson, D., & Prendeville, H. R. (2004). Ecological effects of transgenic crops and the escape of transgenes into wild populations. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 35, 149 174.
189. Poppy, G. M., & Wilkinson, M. J. (2005). Gene Flow from GM Crops. Oxford, UK : Blackwell.
190. Purrington, C. B., & Bergelson, J. (1995). Assessing weediness of transgenic crops: industry plays plant ecologist. Trends Ecol. Evol., 10, 340 342.
191. Pysek, P. (2001). Past and future of predictions in plant invasions: a field test by time. Divers. Distrib., 7, 145 151.
192. Radosevich, S. R., & Holt, J. S. (1984). Weed Ecology: Implications for Vegetation Management (265 pp.). New York : John Wiley & Sons.
193. Raghu, S., Anderson, R. C., Daehler, C. C., et al 2006). Adding biofuels to the invasive species fire? Science, 313, 1742 1742.
194. Raun, W. R., & Johnson, G. V. (1999). Improving nitrogen use efficiency for cereal production. Agron. J., 9, 357 363.
195. Raybould, A. (2006). Problem formulation and hypothesis testing for environmental risk assessments of genetically modified crops. Environ. Biosafety Res., 5, 1 7.
196. Raybould, A. (2007). Ecological versus ecotoxicological methods for assessing the environmental risks of transgenic crops. Plant Sci., 173, 589 602.
197. Raybould, A. F., & Gray, A. J. (1994). Will hybrids of genetically modified crops invade natural communities? Trends Ecol. Evol., 9, 85 89.
198. Reagon, M., & Snow, A. A. (2006). Cultivated Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae) volunteers as a genetic "bridge" to weedy sunflower populations in North America. Am. J. Bot., 93, 127 133.
199. Reichard, S. H., & Hamilton, C. W. (1997). Predicting invasions of woody plants introduced into North America. Conserv. Biol., 11, 193 203.
200. Reichman, J. R., Watrud, L. S., Lee, E. H., et al 2006). Establishment of transgenic herbicide-resistant creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) in nonagronomic habitats. Mol. Ecol., 15, 4243 4255.
201. Rejmánek, M. (1995). What makes a species invasive? In P. Pysek, K. Prach, M. Rejmanek, et al. (Eds.), Plant Invasions - General Aspects and Special Problems (pp. 3 13). Amsterdam : SPB Academic.
202. Rejmánek, M., & Richardson, D. M. (1996). What attributes make some plants more invasive? Ecology, 77, 1655 1661.
203. Richards, C. L., Bossdorf, O., Muth, N. Z., et al 2006). Jack of all trades, master of some? On the role of phenotypic plasticity in plant invasions. Ecol. Lett., 9, 981 993.
204. Richardson, D. M., & Pyšek, P. (2006). Plant invasions: merging the concepts of species invasiveness and community invasibility. Prog. Phys. Geogr., 30, 409 431.
205. Rieger, M. A., Lamond, M., Preston, C., et al 2002). Pollen-mediated movement of herbicide resistance between commercial canola fields. Science, 296, 2386 2388.
206. Rieseberg, L. H. (1991). Hybridization in rare plants: insights from case studies in Cercocarpus and Helianthus. In D. A. Falk & K. E. Holsinger (Eds Genetics and Conservation of Rare Plants (pp. 171 181). New York : Academic Press.
207. Rieseberg, L. H., & Burke, J. M. (2001). The biological reality of species: gene flow, selection, and collective evolution. Taxon, 50, 47 67.
208. Rieseberg, L. H., Kim, M. J., & Seiler, G. J. (1999). Introgression between the cultivated sunflower and a sympatric wild relative, Helianthus petiolaris (Asteraceae). Int. J. Plant Sci., 160, 102 108.
209. Rothfels, C. J., Beaton, L. L., & Dudley, S. A. (2002). The effects of salt, manganese and density on life history traits in Hesperis matronalis from oldfield and roadside populations. Can. J. Bot., 80, 131 139.
210. Roux, F., & Reboud, X. (2007). Herbicide resistance dynamics in a spatially heterogeneous environment. Crop Prot., 26, 335 341.
211. Sakai, A. K., Allendorf, F. W., Holt, J. S., et al 2001). The population biology of invasive species. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 32, 305 332.
212. Schierenbeck, K. A., & Ellstrand, N. C. (2008). Hybridization and the evolution of invasiveness in plants and other organisms. Biol. Invasions, in press (DOI).
213. Schmitt, J., & Linder, C. R. (1994). Will escaped transgenes lead to ecological release? Mol. Ecol., 3, 71 74.
214. Schouten, H. J., van Tongeren, C. A. M., & Van Den Bulk, R. W. (2002). Fitness effects of Alternaria dauci on wild carrot in the Netherlands. Environ. Biosafety Res., 1, 39 47.
215. Shrawat, A. K., Carroll, R. T., DePauw, M., et al 2008). Genetic engineering of improved nitrogen use efficiency in rice by the tissue-specific expression of alanine aminotransferase. Plant Biotechnol. J., 6, 722 732.
216. Sibony, M., & Rubin, B. (2003). The ecological fitness of ALS-resistant Amaranthus retroflexus and multiple-resistant Amaranthus blitoides. Weed Res., 43, 40 47.
217. Simard M.-J., Légère, A., Séguin-Swartz, G., et al 2005). Fitness of double vs. single herbicide-resistant canola. Weed Sci., 53, 489 498.
218. Simard M.-J., Légère, A., & Warwick, S. I. (2006). Transgenic Brassica napus fields and Brassica rapa weeds in Quebec: sympatry and weed-crop in situ hybridization. Can. J. Bot., 84, 1842 1851.
219. Singh, R. J., & Hymowitz, T. (1989). The genomic relationships among Glycine soja Sieb. and Zucc., G. max (L.) Merr. and 'G. gracilis' Skvortz. Plant Breed. 103, 171 173.
220. Slatkin, M. (1987). Gene flow at the geographic structure of natural populations. Science, 236, 787 792.
221. Snow, A. A. (2002). Transgenic crops-why gene flow matters. Nat. Biotechnol., 20, 542.
222. Snow, A. A., Andersen, B., & Jørgensen, R. B. (1999). Costs of transgenic herbicide resistance introgressed from Brassica napus into weedy Brassica rapa. Mol. Ecol., 8, 605 615.
223. Snow, A. A., Pilson, D., Rieseberg, L. H., et al 2003). A Bt transgene reduces herbivory and enhances fecundity in wild sunflowers. Ecol. Appl., 13, 279 286.
224. Spencer, L. J., & Snow, A.A. (2001). Fecundity of transgenic wild-crop hybrids of Cucurbita pepo (Curbitaceae): implications for crop-to-wild gene flow. Heredity, 86, 694 702.
225. Stein, A., & Rodriguez-Cerezo, E. (Eds. 2007). Proceedings of the Third International Conferenceon Coexistence between Genetically Modified (GM) and Non-GM Based Agricultural Supply Chains : Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, Joint Research Centre, European Commission, Spain.
226. Stewart, C. N., Jr., Halfhill, M. D., & Warwick, S. I. (2003). Transgene introgression from genetically modified crops to their wild relatives. Nat. Rev. Genet., 4, 806 817.
227. Strange, A., Park, J., Bennett, R., et al 2008). The use of life-cycle assessment to evaluate the environmental impacts of growing genetically modified, nitrogen use-efficient canola. Plant Biotechnol. J., 6, 337 345.
228. Sutherland, J. P., Justinova, L., & Poppy, G. M. (2006). The responses of crop-wild Brassica hybrids to simulated herbivory and interspecific competition: implications for transgene introgression. Environ. Biosafety Res., 5, 15 25.
229. Sutherland, S. (2004). What makes a weed a weed: life history traits of native and exotic plants in the USA. Oecologia, 141, 24 39.
230. Tardif, F. J., Rajcan, I., & Costea, M. (2006). A mutation in the herbicide target site acetohydroxyacid synthase produces morphological and structural alterations and reduces fitness in Amaranthus powellii. New Phytol., 169, 251 264.
231. Thomas, A. G., & Leeson, J. Y. (2007). Tracking long-term changes in the arable weed flora of Canada. In D. R. Clements & S. J. Darbyshire (Eds Invasive Plants: Inventories, Strategies and Action (pp. 43 69). Topics in Canadian Weed Science Vol 5. Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada : Canadian Weed Science Society.
232. Thompson, C. R., Thill, D. C., & Shafii, B. (1994). Germination characteristics of sulfonylurea-resistant and -susceptible kochia (Kochia scoparia). Weed Sci., 42, 50 56.
233. Thuiller, W., Richardson, D. M., Rouget, M., et al 2006). Interactions between environment, species traits and human use describe patterns of plant invasions. Ecology, 87, 1755 1769.
234. Tian, D., Traw, M. B., Chen, J. Q., et al 2003). Fitness costs of R-gene-mediated resistance in Arabidopsis thaliana. Nature, 423, 74 77.
235. Van de Water, P. K., Watrud, L. S., Lee, E. H., et al 2007). Long-distance GM pollen movement of creeping bentgrass using modeled wind trajectory analysis. Ecol. Appl., 17, 1244 1256.
236. Vila-Aiub, M. M., Neve, P., & Powles, S. B. (2005). Resistance cost of a cytochrome P450 herbicide metabolism mechanism but not an ACCase target site mutation in a multiple resistant Lolium rigidum population. New Phytol., 167, 787 796.
237. Vitousek, P. M. (1990). Biological invasions and ecosystem processes: towards an integration of population biology and ecosystem studies. Oikos, 57, 7 13.
238. Vogel, K. P., & Jung, H. G. (2001). Genetic modification of herbaceous plants for feed and fuel. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci., 20, 15 49.
239. von der Lippe, M., & Kowarik, I. (2007). Crop seed spillage along roads: a factor of uncertainty in the containment of GMO. Ecography, 30, 483 490.
240. Warwick, S. I. (2007). Gene flow between GM crops and related species in Canada. In C. Swanton & R. Gulden (Eds The First Decade of Herbicide Resistant Crops in Canada (pp. 101 113). Topics in Canadian Weed Science, Vol. 4. Sainte-Anne-de Bellevue, QC, Canada : Canadian Weed Science Society.
241. Warwick, S. I., Beckie, H. J., & Small, E. (1999). Transgenic crops: new weed problems for Canada? Phytoprotection, 80, 71 84.
242. Warwick, S. I., & Black, L. D. (1993). Relative fitness of herbicide-resistant and susceptible biotypes of weeds. Phytoprotection, 75 (Suppl. 37 49.
243. Warwick, S. I., Légère, A., Simard, M. J., et al 2008a). Do escaped transgenes persist in nature? The case of an herbicide resistance transgene in a weedy Brassica rapa population. Mol. Ecol., 17, 1387 1395.
244. Warwick, S. I., Simard, M.-J., Légère, A., et al 2003). Hybridization between transgenic Brassica napus L. and its wild relatives: B. rapa L., Raphanus raphanistrum L., Sinapis arvensis L., and Erucastrum gallicum (Willd.) O.E. Schulz. Theor. Appl. Genet., 107, 528 539.
245. Warwick, S. I., & Stewart, Jr., C. N. (2005). Crops come from wild plants - how domestication, transgenes and linkage together shape ferality. In J. Gressel (Ed Crop Ferality and Volunteerism (pp. 9 30). London : CRC Press.
246. Warwick, S. I., Xu, R., Sauder, C., et al 2008b). Acetolactate synthase target site mutations and single nucleotide polymorphism genotyping in ALS-resistant kochia (Kochia scoparia). Weed Sci., 56, 797 806.
247. Watkinson, A. R., Freckleton, R. P., Robinson, R. A., et al 2000). Predictions of biodiversity response to genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops. Science, 289, 1554 1557.
248. Watrud, L. S., Lee, E. H., Fairbrother, A., et al 2004). Evidence for landscape-level, pollen-mediated gene flow from genetically modified creeping bentgrass with CP4 EPSPS as a marker. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 101, 14533 14538.
249. Weinig, C., Brock, M. T., Dechaine, J. A., et al 2007). Resolving the genetic basis of invasiveness and predicting invasions. Genetica, 129, 205 216.
250. Weis, A. E. (2005). Assessing the ecological fitness of recipients. In G. M. Poppy & M. J. Wilkinson (Eds Gene Flow from GM Plants (pp. 143 168). Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing.
251. Whitton, J., Wolf, D. E., Arias, D. M., et al 1997). The persistence of cultivar alleles in wild populations of sunflowers five generations after hybridization. Theor. Appl. Genet., 95, 33 40.
252. Wilkinson, M. J., Elliott, L. J., Allainguillaume, J., et al 2003). Hybridization between Brassica napus and B. rapa on a national scale in the United Kingdom. Science, 302, 457 459.
253. Williamson, M. H., & Fitter, A. (1996). The characters of successful invaders. Biol. Conserv., 78, 163 170.
254. Wolfe, L. M. (2002). Why alien invaders succeed: support for the escape-from-enemy hypothesis. Am. Nat., 160, 705 711.
255. Wolfe, L. M., & Blair, A. C. (2007). Born to run: competition enhances the spread of genes from crops to wild relatives. New Phytol., 173, 450 452.
256. York, A. C., Beam, J. B., & Culpepper, A. S. (2005). Control of volunteer glyphosate-resistant soybean in cotton. Cotton Sci., 9, 102 109.
257. Yoshimura, Y., Beckie, H. J., & Matsuo, K. (2006). Transgenic oilseed rape along transportation routes and port of Vancouver in western Canada. Environ. Biosafety Res., 5, 67 75.
258. Yu, Q., Han, H., & Powles, S. B. (2008). Mutations of the ALS gene endowing resistance to ALS-inhibiting herbicides in Lolium rigidum populations. Pest Manag. Sci., 64, 1229 1236.
259. Zand, E., & Beckie, H. J. (2002). Competitive ability of hybrid and open-pollinated canola (Brassica napus) with wild oat (Avena fatua). Can. J. Plant Sci., 82, 473 480.