The biology and agronomy of switchgrass for biofuels

Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences

Volumn 24, Issue 5-6, 2005, Pages 423-459

  Parrish, David J ^a   Fike, John H ^a  

^a VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AND STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Adaptation; Bioenergy; Biofuels; Cold tolerance; Ecology; Energy cropping; Establishment; Harvest; Lowland; Management; Seed dormancy; Switchgrass; Upland

Indexed keywords

PANICUM VIRGATUM;

EID: 30344433741     PISSN: 07352689     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/07352680500316433     Document Type: Review

References (377)

1. Agblevor, F. A., Rejaj, B., Evans, R. J., and Johnson, K. D. 1992. Pyrolytic analysis and catalytic upgrading of lignocellulosic materials by molecular beam mass spectrometry. In: Energy from Biomass Wastes XVI pp. 767-795. D. L. Klass, Ed. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, Chicago.
2. Aiken, G. E., and Springer, T. L. 1995. Seed size distribution, germination, and emergence of 6 switchgrass cultivars. J. Range Manage. 48: 455-458.
3. Al-Karaki, G., McMichael, B., and Zak, J. 2004. Field response of wheat to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and drought stress. Mycorrhiza 14: 263-269.
4. Alberts, E. E., Kramer, L. A., and Ghidey, F. 2001. Sediment deposition within a watershed with stiff-stemmed grass hedges. In: Soil Erosion Research for the 21st Century. Proc. Int. Symposium. pp. 167-170. Honolulu, HI. 3-5 January, 2001. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
5. Alexopoulou, E., Christou, M., Mardikis, M., Sharma, N., Piscioneri, I., Pignatelli, V., and Elbersen, W. 2001. Evaluation of several switchgrass varieties in Greece and Italy. Aspects Appl. Biol. 65: 71-76.
6. Anderson, B., Matches, A. G., and Nelson, C. J. 1989. Carbohydrate reserves and tillering of switchgrass following clipping. Agron. J. 81: 13-16.
7. Anderson, B. E. 2000. Use of warm-season grasses by grazing livestock. In: Native Warm-Season Grasses: Research Trends and Issues. pp. 147-158. Anderson, B. E. and Moore, K. J., Eds., CSSA Special Pub. No. 30. Crop Science Society of America, Madison, WI.
8. AOSA. 1993. Rules for testing seed. J. Seed Tech. 16: 1-113.
9. Awada, T., Moser, L. E., Schacht, W. H., and Reece, P. E. 2002. Stomatal variability of native warm-season grasses from the Nebraska Sandhills. Can. J. Plant Sci. 82: 349-355.
10. Bahler, C. C., Vogel, K. P., and Moser, L. E. 1984. Atrazine tolerance in warm-season grass seedlings. Agron. J. 76: 891-895.
11. Bakker, R. R., and Jenkins, B. M. 2003. Feasibility of collecting naturally leached rice straw for thermal conversion. Biomass Bioenergy 25: 597-614.
12. Balasko, J. A., and Burner, D. M. 1981. Effects of cutting management on yield, quality, and vigor of switchgrass grown without fertilization. Agron. Abstr. Madison, WI.
13. Balasko, J. A., Burner, D. M., and Thayne, W. V. 1984. Yield and quality of switchgrass grown without soil amendments. Agron. J. 76: 204-208.
14. Balasko, J. A., and Smith, D. 1971. Influence of temperature and nitrogen fertilization on the growth and composition of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) and timothy (Phleum pratense L.). Agron. J. 63: 853-856.
15. Barnett, F. L., and Carver, R. F. 1967. Meiosis and pollen stainability in switchgrass, Panicum virgatum L. Crop Sci. 7: 301-304.
16. Beaty, E. R., Engel, J. L., and Powell, J. D. 1978. Tiller development and growth in switchgrass. J. Range Manage. 31: 361-365.
17. Beaty, E. R., and Powell, J. D. 1976. Response of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) to clipping frequency. J. Range Manage. 29: 132-135.
18. Becker, H. 1992. Hedging against erosion. Agric. Res. (Washington) 40: 8-10.
19. Beckman, J. J., Moser, L. E., Kubik, K., and Waller, S. S. 1993. Big bluestem and switchgrass establishment as influenced by seed priming. Agron. J. 85: 199-202.
20. Belden, J. B., and Coats, J. R. 2004. Effect of grasses on herbicide fate in the soil column: Infiltration of runoff, movement, and degradation. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 23: 2251-2258.
21. Belden, J. B., Phillips, T. A., and Coats, J. R. 2004. Effect of prairie grass on the dissipation, movement, and bioavailability of selected herbicides in prepared soil columns. Environ. Toxicol. Chem 23: 125-132.
22. Belesky, D. P., and Fedders, J. M. 1995. Warm-season grass productivity and growth rate as influenced by canopy management. Agron. J. 87: 42-48.
23. Benedict, H. M. 1940. Effect of day length and temperature on the flowering and growth of four species of grasses. J. Agric. Res. 61: 661-672.
24. Bentivenga, S. P., and Hetrick, B. A. D. 1991. Relationship between mycorrhizal activity, burning, and plant productivity in tallgrass prairie. Can. J. Botany 69: 2597-2602.
25. Berg, C. C. 1971. Forage yield of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) in Pennsylvania. Agron. J. 63: 785-786.
26. Berg, W. A. 1995. Response of a mixed native warm-season grass planting to nitrogen fertilization. J. Range Manage. 48: 64-67.
27. Bilbro, J. D., and Fryrear, D. W. 1997. Comparative performance of forage sorghum, grain sorghum, kenaf, switchgrass, and slant-fence wind barriers in reducing wind velocity. J. Soil Water Conserv. 52: 447-452.
28. Blanche, S. B., Shaw, D. R., Massey, J. H., Boyette, M., and Smith, M. C. 2003. Fluometuron adsorption to vegetative filter strip components. Weed Sci. 51: 125-129.
29. Blanco-Canqui, H., Gantzer, C. J., Anderson, S. H., Alberts, E. E., and Thompson, A. L. 2004. Grass barrier and vegetative filter strip effectiveness in reducing runoff, sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus loss. Soil Sci. Soc. America J. 68: 1670-1678.
30. Bock, C. E., Bock, J. H., and Bennett, B. C. 1995. The avifauna of remnant tallgrass prairie near Boulder, Colorado. Prairie Naturalist 27: 147-157.
31. Boe, A. 2003. Genetic and environmental effects on seed weight and seed yield in switchgrass. Crop Sci. 43: 63-67.
32. Boerner, R. E. J. 1992a. Plant life span andresponse to inoculation with vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. I. Annual versus perennial grasses. Mycorrhiza 1: 153-161.
33. Boerner, R. E. J. 1992b. Plant life span and response to inoculation with vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. III. Responsiveness and residual soil P levels. Mycorrhiza 1: 169-174.
34. Boerner, R. E. J., and Harris, K. K. 1991. Effects of collembola (Arthropoda) and relative germination date on competition between mycorrhizal Panicum virgatum (Poaceae) and non-mycorrhizal Brassica nigra (Brassicaceae). Plant Soil 136: 121-129.
35. Bolinder, M. A., Angers, D. A., Bélanger, G., Michaud, R., and Laverdière, M. R. 2002. Root biomass and shoot to root ratios of perennial forage crops in eastern Canada. Can. J. Plant Sci. 82: 731-737.
36. Bona, L., and Belesky, D. P. 1992. Evaluation of switchgrass entries for acid soil tolerance. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 23: 1827-1841.
37. Bovey, R. W., and Hussey, M. A. 1991. Response of selected gorage grasses to herbicides. Agric. J. 83: 709-713.
38. Boylan, D., Bush, V., and Bransby, D. I. 2000. Switchgrass cofiring: Pilot scale and field evaluation. Biomass Bioenergy 19: 411-417.
39. Bransby, D. I., McLaughlin, S. B., and Parrish, D. J. 1998. A review of carbon and nitrogen balances in switchgrass grown for energy. Biomass Bioenergy 14: 379-384.
40. Bransby, D. I., Ward, C. Y., Rose, P. A., Sladden, S. E., and Kee, D. D. 1989. Biomass production from selected herbaceous species in the southeastern USA. Biomass 20: 187-197.
41. Brejda, J. J. 2000. Fertilization of native warm-season grasses. In: Native Warm-Season Grasses: Research Trends and Issues. pp. 177-200. Anderson, B. E., and Moore, K. J., Eds., CSSA Special Pub. No. 30. Crop Science Society of America, Madison, WI.
42. Brejda, J. J., Brown, J. R., Wyman, G. W., and Schumacher, W. K. 1994a. Management of switchgrass for forage and seed production. J. Range Manage. 47: 22-27.
43. Brejda, J. J., Kremer, R. J., and Brown, J. R. 1994b. Indications of associative nitrogen fixation in eastern gamagrass. J. Range Manage. 47: 192-195.
44. Brejda, J. J., Moser, L. E., and Vogel, K. P. 1998. Evaluation of switchgrass rhizosphere microflora for enhancing seedling yield and nutrient uptake. Agron. J. 90: 753-758.
45. Brejda, J. J., Yocom, D. H., Moser, L. E., and Waller, S. S. 1993. Dependence of 3 Nebraska Sandhills warm-season grasses on vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae. J. Range Manage. 46: 14-20.
46. Brown, R. A., Rosenberg, N. J., Hays, C. J., Easterling, W. E., and Mearns, L. O. 2000. Potential production and environmental effects of switchgrass and traditional crops under current and greenhouse-altered climate in the central United States: A simulation study. Agric. Ecosystems Environ. 78: 31-47.
47. Bullard, M. J., Christian, D. G., Knight, J. D., Lainsbury, M. A., and Parker, S. R., Eds. 2001. Biomass and Energy Crops II, University of York, York, UK. 18-21 December 2001. Aspects Appl. Biol. 65: 1-374.
48. Burns, J. C., Fisher, D. S., and Pond, K. R. 1993. Ensiling characteristics and utilization of switchgrass preserved as silage. Postharvest Biol. Tech. 3: 349-359.
49. Burns, J. C., and Sollenberger, L. E. 2002. Grazing behavior of ruminants and daily performance from warm-season grasses. Crop Sci. 42: 873-881.
50. Burvall, J. 1997. Influence of harvest time and soil type on fuel quality in reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea L.). Biomass Bioenergy 12: 149-154.
51. Byrd, G. T., and May, P. A., II 2000. Physiological comparisons of switchgrass cultivars differing in transpiration efficiency. Crop Sci. 40: 1271-1277.
52. Casler, M. D. 2005. Ecotypic variation among switchgrass populations from the northern USA. Crop Sci. 45: 388-398.
53. Casler, M. D., and Boe, A. R. 2003. Cultivar x environment interactions in switchgrass. Crop Sci. 43: 2226-2233.
54. Casler, M. D., Buxton, D. R., and Vogel, K. P. 2002. Genetic modification of lignin concentration affects fitness of perennial herbaceous plants. Theor. Appl. Genet. 104: 127-131.
55. Casler, M. D., Vogel, K. P., Taliaferro, C. M., and Wynia, R. L. 2004. Latitudinal adaptation of switchgrass populations. Crop Sci. 44: 293-303.
56. Cassida, K. A., Ocumpaugh, W. R., and Grichar, W. J. 2000. Using herbicides for improving establishment of switchgrass. In: Proc. Amer. Forage Grassl. Council., pp. 196-200. Madison, WI, July 16-19, 2000. Georgetown, TX.
57. Chang, V. S., Burr, B., and Holtzapple, M. T. 1997. Lime pretreatment of switchgrass. Appl. Biochem. Biotech. 63-5: 3-19.
58. Chekol, T., Vough, L. R., and Chaney, R. L. 2002. Plant-soil-contaminant specificity affects phytoremediation of organic contaminants. Int. J. Phytoremediation 4: 17-26.
59. Christian, D. G., Bullard, M. J., and Wilkins, C. 1997. The agronomy of some herbaceous crops grown for energy in southern England. Aspects Appl. Biol. 65: 41-51.
60. Christian, D. G., Riche, A. B., and Yates, N. E. 2001. The yield, composition and production costs for seven varieties of switchgrass and one panic grass grown as a biofuel. Aspects Appl. Biol. 65: 199-204.
61. Christian, D. G., Riche, A. B., and Yates, N. E. 2002. The yield and composition of switchgrass and coastal panic grass grown as a biofuel in southern England. Bioresource Tech. 83: 115-124.
62. Church, G. L. 1940. Cyotaxonomic studies in the Gramineae Spartina, Andropogon and Panicum. Am. J. Bot. 27: 263-271.
63. Clark, B. K., Clark, B. S., Homerding, T. R., and Munsterman, W. E. 1998. Communities of small mammals in six grass-dominated habitats of southeastern Oklahoma. Amer. Midland Naturalist 139: 262-268.
64. Clark, B. K., Kaufman, D. W., Finck, E. J., and Kaufman, G. A. 1989. Small mammals in tall-grass prairie: Patterns associated with grazing and burning. Prairie Naturalist 21: 177-184.
65. Clark, F. E. 1977. Internal cycling of 15N in shortgrass prairie. Ecology 58: 1322-1333.
66. Clark, R. B. 2002. Differences among mycorrhizal fungi for mineral uptake per root length of switchgrass grown in acidic soil. J. Plant Nutr. 25: 1753-1772.
67. Clark, R. B., Zeto, S. K., and Zobel, R. W. 1999a. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal isolate effectiveness on growth and root colonization of Panicum virgatum in acidic soil. Soil Biology Biochemistry 31: 1757-1763.
68. Clark, R. B., Zobel, R. W., and Zeto, S. K. 1999b. Effects of mycorrhizal fungus isolates on mineral acquisition by Panicum virgatum in acidic soil. Mycorrhiza 9: 167-176.
69. Coffman, C. B., and Vough, L. R. 2004. Switchgrass and eastern gamagrass establishment and management using herbicides. In: Proc. Third Eastern Native Grass Symposium., pp. 84-85. Randall, J., and Burns, J. C., Eds., Omnipress, Chapel Hill, NC.
70. Coppedge, B. R., Engle, D. M., Toepfer, C. S., and Shaw, J. H. 1998. Effects of seasonal fire, bison grazing and climatic variation on tallgrass prairie vegetation. Plant Ecology 139: 235-246.
71. Cornelius, D. R. 1944. Revegetation in the tall grass prairie region. J. Amer. Soc. Agron. 36: 393-400.
72. Cornelius, D. R., and Johnston, C. O. 1941. Differences in plant type and reaction to rust among several collections of Panicum virgatum L. J. Am. Soc. Agron. 33: 115-124.
73. Cossar, R. D., and Baldwin, B. S. 2004. Establishment of switchgrass with sorghum-sudangrass. In: Proc. Third Eastern Native Grass Symposium, pp. 98-102. Randall, J., and Burns, J. C., Eds., Omnipress, Chapel Hill, NC.
74. Coulston, J., Riitters, K. H., and Smith, G. C. 2004. A preliminary assessment of the Montreal Process indicators of air pollution for the United States. Environ. Monitoring Assess. 95: 57-74.
75. Cundiff, J. S., and Marsh, L. S. 1996. Harvest and storage costs for bales of switchgrass in the southeastern United States. Bioresource Tech. 56: 95-101.
76. Cundiff, J. S., and Shapouri, H. 1997. Cost and direct energy input to produce fuel cubes from switchgrass. ASAE Paper No. 976078, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
77. Cuomo, G. J., Anderson, B. E., and Young, L. J. 1998. Harvest frequency and burning effects on vigor of native grasses. J. Range Manage. 51: 32-36.
78. Cuomo, G. J., Anderson, B. E., Young, L. J., and Wilhelm, W. W. 1996. Harvest frequency and burning effects on monocultures of 3 warm-season grasses. J. Range Manage. 49: 157-162.
79. Das, M. K., Fuentes, R. G., and Taliaferro, C. M. 2004. Genetic variability and trait relationships in switchgrass. Crop Sci. 44: 443-448.
80. Datar, R. P., Shenkman, R. M., Cateni, B. G., Huhnke, R. L., and Lewis, R. S. 2004. Fermentation of biomass-generated producer gas to ethanol. BioTech. and Bio Eng. 86: 587-594.
81. Davidson, C. G., and Gobin, S. M. 1998. Evaluation of ornamental grasses for the northern Great Plains. J. Environ. Hort. 16: 218-229.
82. Dillaha, T. A., Reneau, R. B., Mostaghimi, S., and Lee, D. 1989. Vegetative filter strips for agricultural nonpoint source pollution control. Trans. Amer. Soc. Agric. Eng. 32: 513-519.
83. Dinesh, M., and Roy, D. N. 1999. Forests, fiber, and the environment - in view of the fiber supply to the pulp and paper industry. Forestry Chronicle 75: 247-255.
84. Downing, M., and Graham, R. L. 1996. The potential supply and cost of biomass from energy crops in the Tennessee valley authority region. Biomass Bioenergy 11: 283-303.
85. DuBois, J. D., and Kapustka, L. A. 1983. Biological nitrogen influx in an Ohio relict prairie. Amer. J. Botany 70: 8-16.
86. Duffy, M. D., and Nanhou, V. Y. 2002. Costs of producing switchgrass for biomass in southern Iowa. In: Trends in New Crops and New Uses. Proc. Fifth Nat. Symp., pp. 267-275. Janick, J., and Whikey, A., Eds., Atlanta, GA. 10-13 November, 2001. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.
87. Dvorak, A. J., and Jastrow, J. D. 1980. Reclaiming an acidic coal refuse pile: Individual responses of seven grasses and one legume after three growing seasons. Agron. Abstr. p. 26. ASA, Madison, WI.
88. Dwyer, D. D., Elder, W. C., and Singh, G. 1963. Effects of height and frequency of clipping on pure stands of range grasses in north central Oklahoma. Bulletin B. 614. Oklahoma Agric. Exp. Stn. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater.
89. Dzantor, E. K., Chekol, T., and Vough, L. R. 2000. Feasibility of using forage grasses and legumes for phytoremediation of organic pollutants. J. Environ. Sci. Health. Part A 35: 1645-1661.
90. Eberhart, S. A., and Newell, L. C. 1959. Variation in domestic collections of switchgrass, Panicum virgatum L. Agron. J. 51: 613-616.
91. Eghball, B., Gilley, J. E., Kramer, L. A., and Moorman, T. B. 2000. Narrow grass hedge effects on phosphorus and nitrogen in runoff following manure and fertilizer application. J. Soil Water Conserv. 55: 172-176.
92. Elbersen, H. W., Christian, D. G., El-Bassem, N., Bacher, W., Sauerbeck, G., Alexopoulou, E., Sharma, N., Piscioneri, I., Visser, P. d., and Berg, D. v. d. 2001. Switchgrass variety choice in Europe. Aspects Appl. Biol. 65: 21-28.
93. Elbersen, H. W., Ocumpaugh, W. R., Hussey, M. A., Sanderson, M. A., and Tischler, C. R. 1998. Crown node elevation of switchgrass and kleingrass under low light. Crop Sci. 38: 712-716.
94. Elbersen, H. W., Ocumpaugh, W. R., Hussey, M. A., Sanderson, M. A., and Tischler, C. R. 1999. Field evaluation of switchgrass seedlings divergently selected for crown node placement. Crop Sci. 39: 475-479.
95. Entry, J. A., and Watrud, L. S. 1998. Potential remediation of Cs-137 and Sr-90 contaminated soil by accumulation in Alamo switchgrass. Water Air Soil Pollution 104: 339-352.
96. Eom, A. H., Hartnett, D. C., and Wilson, G. W. T. 2000. Host plant species effects on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities in tallgrass prairie. Oecologia 122: 435-444.
97. Eom, A. H., Wilson, G. W. T., and Hartnett, D. C. 2001. Effects of ungulate grazers on arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis and fungal community structure in tallgrass prairie. Mycologia 93: 233-242.
98. Epplin, F. M. 1996. Cost to produce and deliver switchgrass biomass to an ethanol- conversion facility in the southern plains of the United States. Biomass Bioenergy 11: 459-467.
99. Etheridge, J. V., Davey, L., and Christian, D. G. 2001. First report of Rhizoctonia cerealis causing sharp eyespot in Panicum virgatum in the UK. Plant Path. 50: 807.
100. Evers, G. W., and Butler, T. W. 2000. Switchgrass establishment on coastal plain soil. In: Proc. Amer. Forage Grassl. Council. pp. 150-154. Madison, WI, July 16-19, 2000. Georgetown, TX.
101. Evers, G. W., and Parsons, M. J. 2003. Soil type and moisture level influence on Alamo switchgrass emergence and seedling growth. Crop Sci. 43: 288-294.
102. Fick, G. W., Pfeifer, R. A., and Lathwell, D. J. 1994. Production patterns of perennial herbaceous biomass crops in the great-lakes region. Energy Sources 16: 333-348.
103. Finlay, R. D. 2004. Mycorrhizal fungi and their multifunctional roles. Mycologist 18: 91-96.
104. Fox, G., Girouard, P., and Syaukat, Y. 1999. An economic analysis of the financial viability of switchgrass as a raw material for pulp production in eastern Ontario. Biomass Bioenergy 16: 1-12.
105. Frank, A. B., Berdahl, J. D., Hanson, J. D., Liebig, M. A., and Johnson, H. A. 2004. Biomass and carbon partitioning in switchgrass. Crop Sci. 44: 1391-1396.
106. Friedrich, J. W., Smith, D., and Schrader, L. E. 1977. Herbage yield and chemical composition of switchgrass as affected by N, S and K fertilization. Agron. J. 69: 30-33.
107. Gaffney, F. B., and Dickerson, J. A. 1987. Species selection for revegetating sand and gravel mines in the Northeast. J. Soil Water Conserv. 42: 358-361.
108. Garrett, K. A., Dendy, S. P., Power, A. G., Blaisdell, G. K., Alexander, H. M., and McCarron, J. K. 2004. Barley yellow dwarf disease in natural populations of dominant tallgrass prairie species in Kansas. Plant Disease 88: 574.
109. Garten, C. T., Jr., and Wullschleger, S. D. 2000. Soil carbon dynamics beneath switchgrass as indicated by stable isotope analysis. J. Environ. Qual. 29: 645-653.
110. Garten, C. T., and Wullschleger, S. D. 1999. Soil carbon inventories under a bioenergy crop (switchgrass): Measurement limitations. J. Environ. Qual. 28: 1359-1365.
111. George, J. R., and Obermann, D. 1989. Spring defoliation to improve summer supply and quality of switchgrass. Agron. J. 81: 47-52.
112. George, J. R., Obermann, D. J., and Wolf, D. D. 1989. Seasonal tends for nonstructural carbohydrates in stem bases of defoliated switchgrass. Crop Sci. 29: 1282-1287.
113. George, J. R., Reigh, G. S., Mullen, R. E., and Hunczak, J. J. 1990. Switchgrass herbage and seed yield and quality with partial spring defoliation. Crop Sci. 30: 845-849.
114. Giuliano, W. M., and Daves, S. E. 2002. Avian response to warm-season grass use in pasture and hayfield management. Biological Conservation 106: 1-9.
115. Glennon, R., and van der Grinten, M. 2004a. Establishment of native perennial grasses on Superfund sites contaminated with heavy metal in the eastern United States. In: Proc. Third Eastern Native Grass Symposium., pp. 42-15. Randall, J. and Burns, J. C., Eds., Omnipress, Chapel Hill, NC.
116. Glennon, R., and van der Grinten, M. 2004b. Reclaiming coal mines with native grasses in the northeastern United States. In: Proc. Third Eastern Native Grass Symposium. pp. 38-41. Randall, J. and Burns, J. C., Eds., Omnipress, Chapel Hill, NC.
117. Goel, K., Radiotis, T., Eisner, R., Sherson, G., and Li, J. 2000. Switchgrass: A potential pulp fibre source. Pulp Paper Canada 101: 41-45.
118. Goodman, W. R., Coady, S. A., and English, B. C. 1991. Biomass crop production on representative southeastern United-States farms - farm profitability, erosion control and the 1985 Food Security Act. Bioresource Tech. 36: 207-214.
119. 4 plants. Archives of Phytopath. Plant Protection 31: 377-386.
120. Graham, R. L., English, B. C., and Noon, C. E. 2000. A geographic information system-based modeling system for evaluating the cost of delivered energy crop feedstock. Biomass Bioenergy 18: 309-329.
121. Graven, C. E., Tiffany, L. H., and Munkvold, G. P. 2000. Outbreak of smut caused by Tilletia maclagani on cultivated switchgrass in Iowa. Plant Disease 84: 596.
122. Grossi, N., Volterrani, M., Pardini, G., Pistoia, A., and Ferruzzi, G. 1998. Tropical fodder crops in coastal Tuscany. Note I. Agronomic characteristics and adaptability. J. Agric. Environ. Int. Develop. 92: 195-206.
123. Gunter, L. E., Black, A. S., Ratnayeke, S., Tuskan, G. A., and Wullschleger, S. D. 2003. Assessment of genetic similarity among 'Alamo' switchgrass seed lots using RAPD markers. Seed Sci. Tech. 31: 681-689.
124. Gunter, L. E., Tuskan, G. A., and Wullschleger, S. D. 1996. Diversity among populations of switchgrass based on RAPD markers. Crop Sci. 36: 1017-1022.
125. Gupta, S. D., and Conger, B. V. 1999. Somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration from suspension cultures of switchgrass. Crop Sci. 39: 243-247.
126. Gustafson, D. M., Boe, A., and Jin, Y. 2003. Genetic variation for Puccinia emaculata infection in switchgrass. Crop Sci. 43: 755-759.
127. Gutormson, T. J., and Patin, A. L. 2002. Sources of laboratory test result variation in warm-season grasses. Seed Tech. 24: 52-61.
128. Haferkamp, M. R., and Copeland, T. D. 1984. Shoot growth and development of Alamo switchgrass as influenced by mowing and fertilization. J. Range Manage. 37: 406-412.
129. Hall, K. E., George, J. R., and Riedl, R. R. 1982. Herbage dry matter yields of switchgrass, big bluestem and indiangrass with N fertilization. Agron. J. 74: 47-51.
130. Hallam, A., Anderson, I. C., and Buxton, D. R. 2001. Comparative economic analysis of perennial, annual, and intercrops for biomass production. Biomass Bioenergy 21: 407-424.
131. Hargrave, B. S., and Seastedt, T. R. 1994. Nitrogen concentrations of senescent foliage in a relict tall-grass prairie. Prairie Naturalist 26: 61-65.
132. Harper, C. A., Morgan, G. D., and Dixon, C. E. 2004. Establishing native warm-season grasses using conventional and no-till technology with various applications of Plateau herbicide. In: Proc. Third Eastern Native Grass Symposium., pp. 63-70. Randall, J., and Burns, J. C., Eds., Omnipress, Chapel Hill, NC.
133. Harper, J., and Spooner, A. E. 1983. Establishment of selected herbaceous species on acid bauxite mine soils. In: Proc. Symp. on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology and Reclamation. pp. 413-422. Aluminum Company of America. Bauxite, AR.
134. Hartnett, D. C. 1989. Density- and growth stage-dependent responses to defoliation in two rhizomatous grasses. Oecologia 80: 414-420.
135. Hartnett, D. C., Samenus, R. J., Fischer, L. E., and Hetrick, B. A. D. 1994. Plant demographic responses to mycorrhizal symbiosis in tallgrass prairie. Oecologia 99: 21-26.
136. Hauser, V. L. 1983. Grass establishment by bandoleers, transplants and germinated seeds. Trans. Amer. Soc. Ag. Eng. 26: 74-80.
137. Haynes, J. G., Pill, W. G., and Evans, T. A. 1997. Seed treatments improve the germination and seedling emergence of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.). HortSci. 32: 1222-1226.
138. 4 perennial biomass crops in relation to nitrogen, temperature and water. Biomass Bioenergy 27: 21-30.
139. 4 grasses of tallgrass prairie. Ecology 75: 1877-1886.
140. Hetrick, B. A. D., Kitt, D. G., and Wilson, G. T. 1988. Mycorrhizal dependence and growth habit of warm-season and cool- season tallgrass prairie plants. Can. J. Botany 66: 1376-1380.
141. Hetrick, B. A. D., Wilson, G. W. T., and Leslie, J. F. 1991. Root architecture of warm- and cool- season grasses: Relationship to mycorrhizal dependence. Can. J. Botany 69: 112-118.
142. 4 grasses to mycorrhizal symbiosis, phosphorus fertilization, and soil microorganisms. Can. J. Botany 68: 461-467.
143. Hintz, R. L., Harmoney, K. R., Moore, K. J., George, J. R., and Brummer, E. C. 1998. Establishment of switchgrass and big bluestem in corn with atrazine. Agron. J. 90: 591-596.
144. Hitchcock, A. S. 1935. Manual of the Grasses of the United States. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.
145. Hope, H. J., and McElroy, A. 1990. Low-temperature tolerance of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.). Can. J. Plant Sci. 70: 1091-1096.
146. Hopkins, A. A., and Taliaferro, C. M. 1997. Genetic variation within switchgrass populations for acid soil tolerance. Crop Sci. 37: 1719-1722.
147. Hopkins, A. A., Taliaferro, C. M., Murphy, C. D., and Christian, D. A. 1996. Chromosome number and nuclear DNA content of several switchgrass populations. Crop Sci. 36: 1192-1195.
148. Hopkins, A. A., Vogel, K. P., Moore, K. J., Johnson, K. D., and Carlson, I. T. 1995a. Genotype effects and genotype by environment interactions for traits of elite switchgrass populations. Crop Sci. 35: 125-132.
149. Hopkins, A. A., Vogel, K. P., Moore, K. J., Johnson, K. D., and Carlson, I. T. 1995b. Genotypic variability and genotype x environment interactions among switchgrass accessions from the midwestern USA. Crop Sci. 35: 565-571.
150. Hsu, F. H., and Nelson, C. J. 1985. Relationships between germination tests and field emergence of perennial warm-season forage grasses. In: Proc. XV Int. Grassl. Cong., pp. 380-381. Kyoto, Japan, August 24-31, 1985.
151. Hsu, F. H., and Nelson, C. J. 1986a. Planting date effects on seedling development of perennial warm-season forage grasses. I. Field emergence. Agron. J. 78: 33-38.
152. Hsu, F. H., and Nelson, C. J. 1986b. Planting date effects on seedling development of perennial warm- season forage grasses. II. Seedling growth. Agron. J. 78: 38-42.
153. Hsu, F. H., Nelson, C. J., and Matches, A. G. 1985a. Temperature effects on germination of perennial warm-season forage grasses. Crop Sci. 25: 215-220.
154. Hsu, F. H., Nelson, C. J., and Matches, A. G. 1985b. Temperature effects on seedling development of perennial warm-season forage grasses. Crop Sci. 25: 249-255.
155. Huang, S. X., Su, X. J., Haselkorn, R., and Gornicki, P. 2003. Evolution of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) based on sequences of the nuclear gene encoding plastid acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Plant Sci. 164: 43-49.
156. Hultquist, S. J., Vogel, K. P., Lee, D. J., Arumuganathan, K., and Kaeppler, S. 1996. Chloroplast DNA and nuclear DNA content variations among cultivars of switchgrass, Panicum virgatum L. Crop Sci. 36: 1049-1052.
157. Ichizen, N., Nishio, T., Liu, G., Li, D., and Huang, J. 2001. Relation between management systems and soil erosion and screening of perennial gramineous plants for vegetation recovery in hilly land in loess plateau. J. Weed Sci. and Tech. 46: 97-103.
158. Ichizen, N., Nishio, T., Liu, G., Li, D., Huang, J., and Watanabe, K. 2002. The relation between soil temperature and the number of overwintering plants of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), quackgrass (Agropyron repens Beauv.) and johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense Pers.) in hilly land on a loess plateau. J. Weed Sci. and Tech. 47: 74-78.
159. Jackson, L. L. 1999. Establishing tallgrass prairie on grazed permanent pasture in the upper Midwest. Restoration Ecology 7: 127-138.
160. Jefferson, P. G., McCaughey, W. P., May, K., Woosaree, J., MacFarlane, L., and Wright, S. M. B. 2002. Performance of American native grass cultivars in the Canadian prairie provinces. Native Plants J. 3: 24-33.
161. Jensen, N. K., and Boe, A. 1991. Germination of mechanically scarified neoteric switchgrass seed. J. Range Manage. 44: 299-301.
162. Jewett, J. G., Sheaffer, C. C., Moon, R. D., Martin, N. P., Barnes, D. K., Breitbach, D. D., and Jordan, N. R. 1996. A survey of CRP land in Minnesota. 1. Legume and grass persistence. J. Prod. Agric. 9: 528-534.
163. Johnson, N. C. 1998. Responses of Salsola kali and Panicum virgatum to mycorhizal fungi, phosphorus and soil organic matter: Implications for reclamation. J. Applied Ecology 35: 86-94.
164. Jorgensen, U. 1997. Genotypic variation in dry matter accumulation and content of N, K, and Cl in Miscanthus in Denmark. Biomass Bioenergy 12: 155-169.
165. Jung, G. A., Gross, C. F., Kocher, R. E., Burdette, L. A., and Sharp, W. C. 1978. Warm-season range grasses extend beef cattle forage. Sci. Agric. 25: 6.
166. Jung, G. A., Shaffer, J. A., and Stout, W. L. 1988. Switchgrass and big bluestem responses to amendments on strongly acid soil. Agron. J. 80: 669-676.
167. Jung, G. A., Shaffer, J. A., Stout, W. L., and Panciera, M. T. 1990. Warm-season grass diversity in yield, plant morphology, and nitrogen concentration and removal in northeastern USA. Agron. J. 82: 21-26.
168. Kassel, P. C., Mullen, R. E., and Bailey, T. B. 1985. Seed yield response of three switchgrass cultivars for different management practices. Agron. J. 77: 214-218.
169. Kemper, D., Dabney, S., Kramer, L., Dominick, D., and Keep, T. 1992. Hedging against erosion. J. Soil Water Conserv. 47: 284-288.
170. Kindler, S. D., and Dalrymple, R. L. 1999. Relative susceptibility of cereals and pasture grasses to the yellow sugarcane aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae). J. Agric. Urban Entomology 16: 113-122.
171. King, M. A., Waller, S. S., Moser, L. E., and Stubbendieck, J. L. 1989. Seedbed effects on grass establishment on abandoned Nebraska Sandhills cropland. J. Range Manage. 42: 183-187.
172. 4 grasses. Biomass Bioenergy 17: 95-112.
173. Knapp, A. D. 2000. An overview of seed dormancy ill native warm-season grasses. In: Native Warm-Season Grasses: Research Trends and Issues. pp. 107-122. Anderson, B. E. and Moore, K. J., Eds., CSSA Special Pub. No. 30. Crop Science Society of America, Madison, WI.
174. Knapp, A. K. 1985. Effect of fire and drought on the ecophysiology of Andropogon gerardii and Panicum virgatum in a tallgrass praire. Ecology 66: 1309-1320.
175. Kocher, E., and Stubbendieck, J. 1986. Broadcasting grass seed to revegetate sandy soils. J. Range Manage. 39: 555-557.
176. Kort, J., Collins, M., and Ditsch, D. 1998. A review of soil erosion potential associated with biomass crops. Biomass Bioenergy 14: 351-359.
177. Koshi, P. T., Stubbendieck, J., Eck, H. V., and McCully, W. G. 1982. Switchgrasses: Forage yield, forage quality and water-use efficiency. J. Range Manage. 35: 623-627.
178. Koslowsky, S. D., and Boerner, R. E. J. 1989. Interactive effects of aluminum, phosphorus and mycorrhizae on growth and nutrient uptake of Panicum virgatum L. (Poaceae). Environ. Pollution 61: 107-125.
179. Ku, S. B., Edwards, G. E., and Smith, D. 1978. Photosynthesis and nonstructural carbohydrate in leaf blades of Panicum virgatum as affected by night temperature. Can. J. Botany 56: 63-68.
180. Kurakake, M., Kisaka, W., Ouchi, K., and Komaki, T. 2001. Pretreatment with ammonia water for enzymatic hydrolysis of corn husk, bagasse, and switchgrass. Appl. Biochem. Biotech. 90: 251-259.
181. Lair, K., and Redente, E. F. 2004. Influence of auxin and sulfonylurea herbicides on seeded native communities. J. Range Manage. 57: 211-218.
182. Lal, R., Kimble, J. M., Follett, R. F., and Cole, C. V. 1998. The Potential of U.S. Cropland to Sequester Carbon and Mitigate the Greenhouse Effect. Ann Arbor Press, Chelsea, MI.
183. Lau, C. S., Carrier, D. J., Howard, L. R., Lay, J. O., Archambault, J. A., and Clausen, E. C. 2004. Extraction of antioxidant compounds from energy crops. Appl. Biochem. Biotech. 113-116: 569-583.
184. Launchbaugh, J. L., and Owensby, C. E. 1970. Seeding rate and first-year stand relationships for six native grasses. J. Range Manage. 23: 414-417.
185. Lee, K. H., Isenhart, T. M., and Schultz, R. C. 2003. Sediment and nutrient removal in an established multi-species riparian buffer. J. Soil Water Conserv. 58: 1-8.
186. Lee, S. T., Stegelmeier, B. L., Gardner, D. R., and Vogel, K. P. 2001. The isolation and identification of steroidal sapogenins in switchgrass. J. Natural Toxins 10: 273-281.
187. Lemus, R. 2004. Switchgrass as an Energy Crop: Fertilization, Cultivai; and Cutting Management. Ph.D. Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State U., Blacksburg, VA.
188. Lemus, R., Abaye, A. O., Evanylo, G. K., Zipper, C. E., and Hutton, S. J. 2004. Long-term success of forage species planted for reclamation at Powell River Project. In: Proc. Third Eastern Native Grass Symposium., pp. 263-266. Randall, J. and Burns, J. C., Eds., Omnipress, Chapel Hill, NC.
189. Lemus, R., Brummer, E. C., Moore, K. J., Molstad, N. E., Burras, C. L., and Barker, M. F. 2002. Biomass yield and quality of 20 switchgrass populations in southern Iowa, USA. Biomass Bioenergy 23: 433-442.
190. Levy, D. B., Redente, E. F., and Uphoff, G. D. 1999. Evaluating the phytotoxicity of Pb-Zn tailings to big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii Vitman) and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.). Soil Sci. 164: 363-375.
191. Lewandowski, I., Scurlock, J. M. O., Lindvall, E., and Christou, M. 2003. The development and current status of perennial rhizomatous grasses as energy crops in the US and Europe. Biomass Bioenergy 25: 335-361.
192. Lin, C. H., Lerch, R. N., Garrett, H. E., Johnson, W. G., Jordan, D., and George, M. F. 2003. The effect of five forage species on transport and transformation of atrazine and isoxaflutole (Balance) in lysimeter leachate. J. Environ. Qual. 32: 1992-2000.
193. Lin, C. H., McGraw, R. L., George, M. F., and Garrett, H. E. 1999. Shade effects on forage crops with potential in temperate agroforestry practices. Agrofor. Syst. 44: 109-119.
194. Lowenberg-DeBoer, J., and Cherney, J. H. 1989. Biophysical simulation for evaluating new crops: The case of switchgrass for biomass energy feedstock. Agric. Syst 29: 233-246.
195. Ma, Z., Wood, C. W., and Bransby, D. I. 2000a. Carbon dynamics subsequent to establishment of switchgrass. Biomass Bioenergy 18: 93-104.
196. Ma, Z., Wood, C. W., and Bransby, D. I. 2000b. Impacts of soil management on root characteristics of switchgrass. Biomass Bioenergy 18: 105-112.
197. Ma, Z., Wood, C. W., and Bransby, D. I. 2000c. Soil management impacts on soil carbon sequestration by switchgrass. Biomass Bioenergy 18: 469-477.
198. Ma, Z., Wood, C. W., and Bransby, D. I. 2001. Impact of row spacing, nitrogen rate, and time on carbon partitioning of switchgrass. Biomass Bioenergy 20: 413-419.
199. Madakadze, I. C., Coulman, B. E., McElroy, A. R., Stewart, K. A., and Smith, D. L. 1998a. Evaluation of selected warm-season grasses for biomass production in areas with a short growing season. Bioresource Tech. 65: 1-12.
200. Madakadze, I. C., Coulman, B. E., Peterson, P., Stewart, K. A., Samson, R., and Smith, D. L. 1998b. Leaf area development, light interception, and yield among switchgrass populations in a short-season area. Crop Sci. 38: 827-834.
201. Madakadze, I., Coulman, B. E., Stewart, K., Peterson, P., Samson, R., and Smith, D. L. 1998c. Phenology and tiller characteristics of big bluestem and switchgrass cultivars in a short growing season area. Agron. J. 90: 489-495.
202. Madakadze, I. C., Prithiviraj, B., Madakadze, R. M., Stewart, K., Peterson, P., Coulman, B. E., and Smith, D. L. 2000. Effect of preplant seed conditioning treatment on the germination of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.). Seed Sci. Technol. 28: 403-411.
203. Madakadze, I. C., Prithiviraj, B., Stewart, K. A., Peterson, P. R., Coulman, B. E., and Smith, D. L. 2001. Variation in base temperatures for germination in warm season grasses. Seed Sci. Technol. 29: 31-38.
204. Madakadze, I. C., Stewart, K., Peterson, P. R., Coulman, B. E., Samson, R., and Smith, D. L. 1998d. Light interception, use-efficiency and energy yield of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) grown in a short season area. Biomass Bioenergy 15: 475-482.
205. Madakadze, I. C., Stewart, K. A., Peterson, P. R., Coulman, B. E., and Smith, D. L. 1999a. Cutting frequency and nitrogen fertilization effects on yield and nitrogen concentration of switchgrass in a short season area. Crop Sci. 39: 552-557.
206. Madakadze, I. C., Stewart, K. A., Peterson, P. R., Coulman, B. E., and Smith, D. L. 1999b. Switchgrass biomass and chemical composition for biofuel in Eastern Canada. Agron. J. 91: 696-701.
207. Mani, S., Tabil, L. G., and Sokhansanj, S. 2004. Grinding performance and physical properties of wheat and barley straws, corn stover and switchgrass. Biomass Bioenergy 27: 339-352.
208. Martin, A. R., Moomaw, R. S., and Vogel, K. P. 1982. Warm-season grass establishment with atrazine. Agron. J. 74: 916-920.
209. Martínez-Reyna, J. M., and Vogel, K. P. 2002. Incompatibility systems in switchgrass. Crop Sci. 42: 1800-1805.
210. Masiunas, J. B., and Carpenter, P. L. 1984. Radicle growth of grasses and legumes in response to temperature. HortSci. 19: 298-300.
211. Masters, R. A., and Nissen, S. J. 1998. Revegetating leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula)-infested rangeland with native tallgrasses. Weed Tech. 12: 381-390.
212. Masters, R. A., Nissen, S. J., Gaussoin, R. E., Beran, D. D., and Stougaard, R. N. 1996. Imidazolinone herbicides improve restoration of Great Plains grasslands. Weed Tech. 10: 392-403.
213. McCoy, T. D., Ryan, M. R., Burger, L. W., and Kurzejeski, E. W. 2001. Grassland bird conservation: CP1 vs. CP2 plantings in Conservation Reserve Program fields in Missouri. Amer. Midland Naturalist 145: 1-17.
214. McKendry, P. 2002. Energy production from biomass (part 2): Conversion technologies. Bioresource Tech. 83: 47-54.
215. McKenna, J. R., and Wolf, D. D. 1990. No-till switchgrass establishment as affected by limestone, phosphorus, and carbofuran. J. Prod. Agric. 3: 475-479.
216. McKenna, J. R., Wolf, D. D., and Lentner, M. 1991. No-till warm-season grass establishment as affected by atrazine and carbofuran. Agron. J. 83: 311-316.
217. McLaughlin, M. R., Fairbrother, T. E., and Rowe, D. E. 2004. Nutrient uptake by warm-season perennial grasses in a swine effluent spray field. Agron. J. 96: 484-493.
218. McLaughlin, S. B., and Kszos, L. A. 2005. Development of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) as a bioenergy feedstock in the United States. Biomass Bioenergy In press.
219. McLaughlin, S. B., Samson, R., Bransby, D. I., and Weislogel, A. 1996. Evaluating physical, chemical, and energetic properties of perennial grasses as biofuels. In: Bioenergy '96. Proc. Seventh National Bioenergy Conference: Partnerships to Develop and Apply Biomass Technologies. Nashville, TN. 15-20 September 1996. http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/papers/bioen96/mclaugh.html.
220. McLaughlin, S. B., Ugarte, D., Garten, C. T., Lynd, L. R., Sanderson, M. A., Tolbert, V. R., and Wolf, D. D. 2002. High-value renewable energy from prairie grasses. Environ. Sci. Tech. 36: 2122-2129.
221. McLaughlin, S. B., and Walsh, M. E. 1998. Evaluating environmental consequences of producing herbaceous crops for bioenergy. Biomass Bioenergy 14: 317-324.
222. McMillan, C. 1959. The role of ecotypic variation in the distribution of the central grassland of North America. Ecological Monographs 29: 285-308.
223. McMillan, C., and Weiler, J. 1959. Cytogeography of Panicum virgatum in central North America. Am. J. Bot. 46: 590-593.
224. McMurphy, W. E., Denman, C. E., and Tucker, B. B. 1975. Fertilization of native grass and weeping lovegrass. Agron. J. 67: 233-236.
225. Mersie, W., McNamee, C., Seybold, C., Wu, J. G., and Tierney, D. 2004. Degradation of metolachlor in bare and vegetated soils and in simulated water-sediment systems. Environ. Toxic. Chem. 23: 2627-2632.
226. Mersie, W., Seybold, C. A., McNamee, C., and Huang, J. 1999a. Effectiveness of switchgrass filter strips in removing dissolved atrazine and metolachlor from runoff. J. Environ. Qual. 28: 816-821.
227. Mersie, W., Seybold, C., and Tsegaye, T. 1999b. Movement, adsorption and mineralization of atrazine in two soils with and without switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) roots. European J. Soil Sci. 50: 343-349.
228. Mersie, W., Seybold, C. A., McNamee, C., and Lawson, M. A. 2003. Abating endosulfan from runoff using vegetative filter strips: The importance of plant species and flow rate. Agric. Ecosys. Environ. 97: 215-223.
229. Metcalfe, P., and Bullard, M. J. 2001. Life-cycle analysis of energy grasses. Aspects Appl. Biol. 65: 29-37.
230. Mitchell, R. B., and Britton, C. M. 2000. Managing weeds to establish and maintain warm-season grasses. In: Native Warm-Season Grasses: Research Trends and Issues., pp. 159-176. Anderson, B. E. and Moore, K. J., Eds., CSSA Special Pub. No. 30. Crop Science Society of America, Madison, WI.
231. Mitchell, R. B., Moore, K. J., Moser, L. E., Fritz, J. O., and Redfearn, D. D. 1997. Predicting developmental morphology in switchgrass and big bluestem. Agron. J. 89: 827-832.
232. Monti, A., Venturi, P., and Elbersen, H. W. 2001. Evaluation of the establishment of lowland and upland switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) varieties under different tillage and seedbed conditions in northern Italy. Soil Tillage Res. 63: 75-83.
233. Moore, K. J., Moser, L. E., Vogel, K. P., Waller, S. S., Johnson, B. E., and Pedersen, J. F. 1991. Describing and quantifying growth stages of perennial forage grasses. Agron. J. 83: 1073-1077.
234. Moore, K. J., White, T. A., Hintz, R. L., Patrick, P. K., and Brummer, E. C. 2004. Sequential grazing of cool- and warm-season pastures. Agron. J. 96: 1103-1111.
235. Morris, R. J., Fox, R. H., and Jung, G. A. 1982. Growth, P uptake, and quality of warm- and cool-season grasses on a low available P soil. Agron. J. 74: 125-129.
236. Moser, L. E., and Vogel, K. P. 1995. Switchgrass, big bluestem, and indiangrass. In: Forages. Vol. 1. An Introduction to Grassland Agriculture. 5th Ed., pp. 409-420. Barnes, R. F., Miller, D. A. and Nelson, C. J., Eds. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames.
237. Muir, J. P., Sanderson, M. A., Ocumpaugh, W. R., Jones, R. M., and Reed, R. L. 2001. Biomass production of 'Alamo' switchgrass in response to nitrogen, phosphorus, and row spacing. Agron. J. 93: 896-901.
238. Mullen, R. E., Kassel, P. C., Bailey, T. B., and Knapp, A. D. 1985. Seed dormancy and germination of switchgrass from different row spacings and nitrogen levels. J. Applied Seed Prod. 3: 28-33.
239. Murray, L. D., and Best, L. B. 2003. Short-term bird response to harvesting switchgrass for biomass in Iowa. J. Wildlife Manage. 67: 611-621.
240. Murray, L. D., Best, L. B., Jacobsen, T. J., and Braster, M. L. 2003. Potential effects on grassland birds of converting marginal cropland to switchgrass biomass production. Biomass Bioenergy 25: 167-175.
241. Nada, Y. 1980. Photoperiodic responses in flowering of main tropical pasture grasses. J. Jap. Soc. Grassl. Sci. 26: 157-164.
242. Neuman, E., and George, E. 2004. Colonisation with the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae (Nicol. & Gerd.) enhanced phosphorus uptake from dry soil in Sorghum bicolor (L.). Plant and Soil 261: 245-255.
243. Newell, L. C., and Eberhart, S. A. 1961. Clone and progeny evaluation in the improvement of switchgrass. Crop Sci. 1: 370-373.
244. Newman, P. R., and Moser, L. E. 1988a. Grass seedling emergence, morphology, and establishment as affected by planting depth. Agron. J. 80: 383-387.
245. Newman, P. R., and Moser, L. E. 1988b. Seedling root development and morphology of cool-season and warm-season forage grasses. Crop Sci. 28: 148-151.
246. Ney, R. A., and Schnoor, J. L. 2002. Incremental life cycle analysis: Using uncertainty analysis to frame greenhouse gas balances from bioenergy systems for emission trading. Biomass Bioenergy 22: 257-269.
247. Nickell, G. L. 1973. The physiological ecology of upland and lowland Panicum virgatum. Dissertation Abstr. Int., B 33: 3512.
248. Nielsen, E. L. 1944. Analysis of variation in Panicum virgatum. J. Agric. Res. 69: 327-353.
249. Nielsen, E. L. 1947. Polyploidy and winter survival in Panicum virgatum L. J. Amer. Soc. Agron. 39: 822-827.
250. Oldfather, S., Stubbendieck, J., and Waller, S. S. 1989. Evaluating revegetation practices for sandy Nebraska sandhills. J. Range Manage. 42: 257-259.
251. Olson, W. W. 1987. Effects of seed origin on warm season native grass establishment. Proc. North Dakota Academy of Sci. 41: 39.
252. Panciera, M. T., and Jung, G. A. 1984. Switchgrass establishment by conservation tillage - planting date responses of two varieties. J. Soil Water Conserv. 39: 68-70.
253. Parrish, D. J., and Wolf, D. D. 1992. Managing switchgrass for sustainable biomass production. In: Proc. Symp. Liquid Fuels from Renewable Resources., pp. 34-39. Nashville, TN, 13-14 December 1992. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
254. Parrish, D. J., and Wolf, D. D. 1993. Switchgrass as a biofuels crop for the upper Southeast. In: Proc. First Biomass Conference of the Americas, Burlington, VT. 1: 248-253. National Renewable Energy Lab, Golden, CO.
255. Peters, T. J., Moomaw, R. S., and Martin, A. R. 1989. Herbicides for postemergence control of annual grass weeds in seedling forage grasses. Weed Sci. 37: 375-379.
256. Piscioneri, I., Pignatelli, V., Palazzo, S., and Sharma, N. 2001. Switchgrass production and establishment in the southern Italy climatic conditions. Energy Conversion Manage. 42: 2071-2082.
257. Pitman, W. D. 2000. Adaptation of tall-grass prairie cultivars to West Louisiana. J. Range Manage. 53: 47-51.
258. Porter, C. L., Jr. 1966. An anlaysis of variation between upland and lowland switchgrass Panicum virgatum L. in central Oklahoma. Ecology 47: 980-992.
259. Potvin, M. A. 1993. Establishment of native grass seedlings along a topographic/moisture gradient in the Nebraska sandhills. Amer. Midland Naturalist 130: 248-261.
260. Pradhan, S. P., Conrad, J. R., Paterek, J. R., and Srivastava, V. J. 1998. Potential of phytoremediation for treatment of PAHs in soil at MGP sites. J. Soil Contamination 7: 467-480.
261. 4 grasses (Poaceae). Austr. J. Plant Phys. 14: 403-420.
262. Puoli, J. R., Reid, R. L., and Belesky, D. P. 1992. Photosensitization in lambs grazing switchgrass. Agron. J. 84: 1077-1080.
263. 4 plants reported during late 1974-mid 1977. Photosynthetica 12: 200-208.
264. Redfearn, D. D., Moore, K. J., Vogel, K. P., Waller, S. S., and Mitchell, R. B. 1997. Canopy architecture and morphology of Switchgrass populations differing in forage yield. Agron. J. 89: 262-269.
265. Rehm, G. W. 1984. Yield and quality of a warm-season grass mixture treated with N, P, and atrazine. Agron. J. 76: 731-734.
266. Rehm, G. W. 1990. Importance of nitrogen and phosphorus for production of grasses established with no-till and conventional planting systems. J. Prod. Agric. 3: 333-336.
267. Retta, A., Armbrust, D. V., Hagen, L. J., and Skidmore, E. L. 2000. Leaf and stem area relationships to masses and their height distributions in native grasses. Agron. J. 92: 225-230.
268. Reungsang, A., Moorman, T. B., and Kanwar, R. S. 2001. Transport and fate of atrazine in midwestern riparian buffer strips. J. Amer. Water Resources Assn. 37: 1681-1692.
269. Reynolds, J. H., Walker, C. L., and Kirchner, M. J. 2000. Nitrogen removal in Switchgrass biomass under two harvest systems. Biomass Bioenergy 19: 281-286.
270. Rice, E. L., and Parenti, R. L. 1978. Causes of decreases in productivity in undisturbed tall grass prairie. Amer. J. Botany 65: 1091-1097.
271. Riche, A. B., and Christian, D. G. 2001. Estimates of rhizome weight of Miscanthus with time and rooting depth compared to switchgrass. Aspects Appl. Biol. 65: 147-152.
272. Riggs, P. J., Moritz, R. L., Chelius, M. K., Dong, Y., Iniguez, A. L., Kaeppler, S. M., Casler, M. D., and Triplett, E. W. 2002. Isolation and characterization of diazotrophic endophytes from grasses and their effects on plant growth. In: Nitrogen Fixation: Global Perspectives. Proc. 13th Int. Congress on Nitrogen Fixation., pp. 263-267. Finan, T. R., O'Brian, M. R., Layzell, D. B., Vessey, J. K., and Newton, W. E., Eds., Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. 2-7 July 2001. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.
273. Rodgers, C. S., and Anderson, R. C. 1995. Plant-growth inhibition by soluble salts in sewage sludge-amended mine spoils. J. Environ. Qual. 24: 627-630.
274. Royse, D. J., Rhodes, T. W., Ohga, S., and Sanchez, J. E. 2004. Yield, mushroom size and time to production of Pleurotus cornucopiae (oyster mushroom) grown on switchgrass substrate spawned and supplemented at various rates. Bioresource Tech. 91: 85-91.
275. Ruiz-Lozano, J. M. 2003. Arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis and alleviation of osmotic stress. New perspectives for molecular studies. Mycorrhiza 13: 309-317.
276. Saby, N., and Arrouays, D. 2004. Simulation of the use of a soil-monitoring network to verify carbon sequestration in soils: Will changes in organic carbon stocks be detectable? Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 35: 2379-2396.
277. Salon, P. R., and van der Grinten, M. 2004. The comparison of herbicides for the establishment of warm season grasses. In: Proc. Third Eastern Native Grass Symposium., pp. 79-83. Randall, J., and Burns, J. C., Eds., Omnipress, Chapel Hill, NC.
278. Sanada, Y., and Matsuoka, H. 1998. Varietal difference of shattering habit and seed productivity in guineagrass (Panicum maximum Jacq.) and Panicum spp. Grassl. Sci. 44: 272-277.
279. Sanderson, M. A. 1992. Morphological development of switchgrass and kleingrass. Agron. J. 84: 415-419.
280. Sanderson, M. A. 2000. Cutting management of native warm-season perennial grasses: Morphological and physiological responses. In: Native Warm-Season Grasses: Research Trends and Issues., pp. 133-146. Anderson, B. E. and Moore, K. J., Eds., CSSA Special Pub. No. 30. Crop Science Society of America, Madison, WI.
281. Sanderson, M. A., Adler, P., Skinner, R. H., C., D., and Curran, B. 2004a. Establishment, production, and management needs of switchgrass for biomass feedstock in the north-eastern U.S.A. In: Proc. Third Eastern Native Grass Symposium., pp. 92-97. Randall, J., and Burns, J. C., Eds. Omnipress, Chapel Hill, NC.
282. 4) Grasses, Agronomy Monograph no. 45., pp. 389-417. Moser, L. E., Burson, B. L., and Sollenberger, L. E., Eds., Crop Science Society of America, Madison, WI.
283. Sanderson, M. A., Egg, R. P., and Wiselogel, A. E. 1997. Biomass losses during harvest and storage of switchgrass. Biomass Bioenergy 12: 107-114.
284. Sanderson, M. A., Jones, R. M., McFarland, M. J., Stroup, J., Reed, R. L., and Muir, J. P. 2001. Nutrient movement and removal in a switchgrass biomass-filter strip system treated with dairy manure. J. Environ. Qual. 30: 210-216.
285. Sanderson, M. A., and Moore, K. J. 1999. Switchgrass morphological development predicted from day of the year or degree day models. Agron. J. 91: 732-734.
286. Sanderson, M. A., Read, J. C., and Reed, R. L. 1999a. Harvest management of switchgrass for biomass feedstock and forage production. Agron. J. 91: 5-10.
287. Sanderson, M. A., and Reed, R. L. 2000. Switchgrass growth and development: Water, nitrogen, and plant density effects. J. Range Manage. 53: 221-227.
288. Sanderson, M. A., Reed, R. L., McLaughlin, S. B., Wullschleger, S. D., Conger, B. V., Parrish, D. J., Wolf, D. D., Taliaferro, C., Hopkins, A. A., Ocumpaugh, W. R., Hussey, M. A., Read, J. C., and Tischler, C. R. 1996. Switchgrass as a sustainable bioenergy crop. Bioresource Tech. 56: 83-93.
289. Sanderson, M. A., Reed, R. L., Ocumpaugh, W. R., Hussey, M. A., Van Esbroeck, G., Read, J. C., Tischler, C., and Hons, F. M. 1999b. Switchgrass cultivars and germplasm for biomass feedstock production in Texas. Bioresource Tech. 67: 209-219.
290. Sanderson, M. A., and Wolf, D. D. 1995a. Morphological development of switchgrass in diverse environments. Agron. J. 87: 908-915.
291. Sanderson, M. A., and Wolf, D. D. 1995b. Switchgrass biomass composition during morphological development in diverse environments. Crop Sci. 35: 1432-1438.
292. Schacht, W. H., Smart, A. J., Anderson, B. E., Moser, L. E., and Rasby, R. 1998. Growth responses of warm-season tallgrasses to dormant-season management. J. Range Manage. 51: 442-446.
293. Schneider, U. A., and McCarl, B. A. 2003. Economic potential of biomass based fuels for greenhouse gas emission mitigation. Environ. Resource Econ. 24: 291-312.
294. Schwartz, O. A., and Whitson, P. D. 1987. A 12-year study of vegetation and mammal succession on a reconstructed tallgrass prairie in Iowa. Amer. Midland Naturalist 117: 240-249.
295. Self-Davis, M. L., Moore, P. A., Daniel, T. C., Nichols, D. J., Sauer, T. J., West, C. P., Aiken, G. E., and Edwards, D. R. 2003. Forage species and canopy cover effects on runoff from small plots. J. Soil Water Conserv. 58: 349-359.
296. Shahandeh, H., and Hossner, L. R. 2000. Plant screening for chromium phytoremediation. Int. J. Phytoremediation 2: 31-51.
297. Shaidee, G., Dahl, B. E., and Hansen, R. M. 1969. Germination and emergence of different age seeds of six grasses. J. Range Manage. 22: 240-243.
298. Sharma, N., Piscioneri, I., and Pignatelli, V. 2003. An evaluation of biomass yield stability of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) cultivars. Energy Conversion and Manage. 44: 2953-2958.
299. Shen, Z. X., Parrish, D. J., Wolf, D. D., and Welbaum, G. E. 2001. Stratification in switchgrass seeds is reversed and hastened by drying. Crop Sci. 41: 1546-1551.
300. Shen, Z. X., Welbaum, G. E., Parrish, D. J., and Wolf, D. D. 1999. After-ripening and aging as influenced by anoxia in switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) seeds stored at 60 deg C. Acta Horticulturae 504: 191-197.
301. Skeel, V. A., and Gibson, D. J. 1996. Physiological performance of Andropogon gerardii, Panicum virgatum, and Sorghastrum nutans on reclaimed mine spoil. Restoration Ecology 4: 355-367.
302. Skousen, J. G., and Call, C. A. 1987. Grass and forb species for revegetation of mixed soil-lignite overburden in east central Texas. J. Soil Water Conserv. 42: 438-442.
303. Smart, A. J., and Moser, L. E. 1997. Morphological development of switchgrass as affected by planting date. Agron. J. 89: 958-962.
304. Smart, A. J., and Moser, L. E. 1999. Switchgrass seedling development as affected by seed size. Agron. J. 91: 335-338.
305. Smart, A. J., Moser, L. E., and Vogel, K. P. 2003a. Establishment and seedling growth of big bluestem and switchgrass populations divergently selected for seedling tiller number. Crop Sci. 43: 1434-1440.
306. Smart, A. J., Moser, L. E., and Vogel, K. P. 2004. Morphological characteristics of big bluestem and switchgrass plants divergently selected for seedling tiller number. Crop Sci. 44: 607-613.
307. Smart, A. J., Vogel, K. P., Moser, L. E., and Stroup, W. W. 2003b. Divergent selection for seedling tiller number in big bluestem and switchgrass. Crop Sci. 43: 1427-1433.
308. Smith, B. N., and Brown, W. V. 1973. The Kranz syndrome in the Gramineae as indicated by carbon isotopic ratios. Amer. J. Botany 60: 505-513.
309. Smith, D. 1975. Trends of nonstructural carbohydrates in stem bases of switchgrass. J. Range Manage. 28: 389-391.
310. Smith, D. 1979. Fertilization of switchgrass in the greenhouse with various levels of N and K. Agron. J. 71: 149-150.
311. Smith, M. D., Hartnett, D. C., and Rice, C. W. 2000. Effects of long-term fungicide applications on microbial properties in tallgrass prairie soil. Soil Biology Biochemistry 32: 935-946.
312. Somleva, M. N., Tomaszewski, Z., and Conger, B. V. 2002. Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation of switchgrass. Crop Sci. 42: 2080-2087.
313. Staley, T. E., Stout, W. L., and Jung, G. A. 1991. Nitrogen use by tall fescue and switchgrass on acidic soils of varying water holding capacity. Agron. J. 83: 732-738.
314. Stout, W. L. 1995. Evaluating the added nitrogen interaction effect in forage grasses. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 26: 2829-2841.
315. Stout, W. L., and Jung, G. A. 1995. Biomass and nitrogen accumulation in switchgrass: Effects of soil and environment. Agron. J. 87: 663-669.
316. Stout, W. E., Jung, G. A., and Shaffer, J. A. 1988. Effects of soil and nitrogen on water use efficiency of tall fescue and switchgrass under humid conditions. Soil Sci. Soc. America J. 52: 429-434.
317. Stout, W. L., Jung, G. A., Shaffer, J. A., and Estepp, R. 1986. Soil water conditions and yield of tall fescue, switchgrass, and Caucasian bluestem in the Appalachian Northeast. J. Soil Water Conserv. 41: 184-186.
318. Stout, W. L., Staley, T. E., Shaffer, J. A., and Jung, G. A. 1991. Quantitative effects of soil depth and soil and fertilizer nitrogen on nitrogen uptake by tall fescue and switchgrass. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 22: 1647-1660.
319. Stritzler, N. P., Pagella, J. H., Jouve, V. V., and Ferri, C. M. 1996. Semi-arid warm-season grass yield and nutritive value in Argentina. J. Range Manage. 49: 121-125.
320. Stroup, J. A., Sanderson, M. A., Muir, J. P., McFarland, M. J., and Reed, R. L. 2003. Comparison of growth and performance in upland and lowland switchgrass types to water and nitrogen stress. Bioresource Tech. 86: 65-72.
321. Stucky, D. J., Bauer, J. H., and Lindsey, T. C. 1980. Restoration of acidic mine spoils with sewage sludge: I. Revegetation. Reclamation Review 3: 129-139.
322. Suplick, M. R., Read, J. C., Matuson, M. A., and Johnson, J. P. 2002. Switchgrass leaf appearance and lamina extension rates in response to fertilizer nitrogen. J. Plant Nutrition 25: 2115-2127.
323. Teel, A., Barnhart, S., and Miller, G. 2003. Management Guide for the Production of Switchgrass for Biomass Fuel in Southern Iowa. Iowa State University Extension, Ames, IA.
324. Tharel, L. M., Douglas, J. L., and King, J. R. 2002. Establishment of native grasses into fescue sod. pp.96-100. In: Proc. 25th Annual Southern Conservation Tillage Conference for Sustainable Agriculture, Southern Extension and Research Activity - Information Exchange Group 20 (SERA-IEG-20).Auburn, AL. 24-26 June, 2002.
325. Thomason, W. E., Raun, W. R., Johnson, G. V., Taliaferro, C. M., Freeman, K. W., Wynn, K. J., and Mullen, R. W. 2004. Switchgrass response to harvest frequency and time and rate of applied nitrogen. J. Plant Nutr. 27: 1199-1226.
326. Tillman, D. A. 2000. Biomass cofiring: The technology, the experience, the combustion consequences. Biomass Bioenergy 19: 365-384.
327. Tischler, C. R., Elberson, H. W., Hussey, M. A., Ocumpaugh, W. R., Reed, R. L., and Sanderson, M. A. 2001. Registration of TEM-SLC and TEM-SEC switchgrass germplasms. Crop Sci. 41: 1654-1655.
328. Tischler, C. R., Young, B. A., and Sanderson, M. A. 1994. Techniques for reducing seed dormancy in switchgrass. Seed Sci. and Tech. 22: 19-26.
329. Tjepkema, J. 1975. Nitrogenase activity in the rhizosphere of Panicum virgatum. Soil Biology Biochem. 7: 179-180.
330. Tolbert, V. R., Thornton, F. C., Joslin, J. D., Bock, B. R., Bandaranayake, W., Houston, A. E., Tyler, D. D., Mays, D. A., Green, T. H., and Pettry, D. E. 2000. Increasing below-ground carbon sequestration with conversion of agricultural lands to production of bio-energy crops. New Zealand J. Forestry Sci. 30: 138-149.
331. Tolbert, V. R., Todd, D. E., Mann, L. K., Jawdy, C. M., Mays, D. A., Malik, R., Bandaranayake, W., Houston, A., Tyler, D., and Pettry, D. E. 2002. Changes in soil quality and below-ground carbon storage with conversion of traditional agricultural crop lands to bioenergy crop production. Environ. Pollution 116, S97-S106.
332. Tolbert, V. R., and Wright, L. L. 1998. Environmental enhancement of U.S. biomass crop technologies: Research results to date. Biomass Bioenergy 15: 93-100.
333. Tomar, O. S., Minhas, P. S., Sharma, V. K., and Gupta, R. K. 2003. Response of nine forage grasses to saline irrigation and its schedules in a semi-arid climate of north-west India. J. Arid Environments 55: 533-544.
334. Trócsányi, Z. 1991. Water relations and cutting management of switchgrass. Dissertation Abstr. Int. B, Sci. Eng. 52: 585B.
335. Trouart, T. E., and Knight, R. W. 1985. Water quality of runoff from revegetated mine spoil. In: Proc. Amer. Soc. for Surface Mining and Reclamation. Symposium on the Reclamation of Lands Disturbed by Surface Mining: A Cornerstone for Communication and Understanding, pp. 15-36. Owensboro, KY. 10-13 July 1985.
336. Turhollow, A. 1994. The economics of energy crop production. Biomass Bioenergy 6: 229-241.
337. Turhollow, A. F. 1991. Screening herbaceous lignocellulosic energy crops in temperate regions of the United States. Bioresource Tech. 36: 247-252.
338. 2 from energy crop production. Biomass Bioenergy 1: 129-135.
339. Turner, C. L., Seastedt, T. R., and Dyer, M. I. 1993. Maximization of above-ground grassland production: The role of defoliation frequency, intensity, and history. Ecological Applications 3: 175-186.
340. Van Esbroeck, G. A., Hussey, M. A., and Sanderson, M. A. 1997. Leaf appearance rate and final leaf number of switchgrass cultivars. Crop Sci. 37: 864-870.
341. Van Esbroeck, G. A., Hussey, M. A., and Sanderson, M. A. 1998. Selection response and developmental basis for early and late panicle emergence in Alamo switchgrass. Crop Sci. 38: 342-346.
342. Van Esbroeck, G. A., Hussey, M. A., and Sanderson, M. A. 2003. Variation between Alamo and Cave-in-Rock switchgrass in response to photoperiod extension. Crop Sci. 43: 639-643.
343. Vassey, T. L., George, J. R., and Mullen, R. E. 1985. Early-, mid-, and late-spring establishment of switchgrass at several seeding rates. Agron. J. 77: 253-257.
344. Vaughan, D. H., Cundiff, J. S., and Parrish, D. J. 1989. Herbaceous crops on marginal sites - erosion and economics. Biomass 20: 199-208.
345. Ververis, C., Georghiou, K., Christodoulakis, N., Santas, P., and Santas, R. 2004. Fiber dimensions, lignin and cellulose content of various plant materials and their suitability for paper production. Industrial Crops Products 19: 245-254.
346. Vivas, A., Marulanda, A., Ruiz-Lozano, J. M., Barea, J. M., and Azcón, R. 2003. Influence of a Bacillus sp. on physiological activities of two arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and on plant responses to PEG- induced drought stress. Mycorrhiza 13: 249-256.
347. Vogel, K. P. 1987. Seeding rates for establishing big bluestem and switchgrass with preemergence atrazine applications. Agron. J. 79: 509-512.
348. Vogel, K. P. 2000. Improving warm-season forage grasses using selection, breeding, and biotechnology. In: Native Warm-Season Grasses: Research Trends and Issues, pp. 83-106. Anderson, B. E. and Moore, K. J., Eds., CSSA Special Pub. No. 30. Crop Science Society of America, Madison, WI.
349. Vogel, K. P., Brejda, J. J., Walters, D. T., and Buxton, D. R. 2002a. Switchgrass biomass production in the Midwest USA: Harvest and nitrogen management. Agron. J. 94: 413-420.
350. Vogel, K. P., Hopkins, A. A., Moore, K. J., Johnson, K. D., and Carlson, I. T. 2002b. Winter survival in switchgrass populations bred for high IVDMD. Crop Sci. 42: 1857-1862.
351. Vogel, K. P., and Jung, H. J. G. 2001. Genetic modification of herbaceous plants for feed and fuel. Critical Rev. Plant Sci. 20: 15-49.
352. Wallace, L. L. 1987. Mycorrhizas in grasslands: Interactions of ungulates, fungi and drought. New Phytologist 105: 619-632.
353. Walsh, M. E., Ugarte, D. G. D., Shapouri, H., and Slinsky, S. P. 2003. Bioenergy crop production in the United States - Potential quantities, land use changes, and economic impacts on the agricultural sector. Environ. Resource Econ. 24: 313-333.
354. Warner, D. A., and Edwards, G. E. 1993. Effects of polyploidy on photosynthesis. Photosynthesis Res. 35: 135-147.
355. 4 grass Panicum virgatum. Plant Phys. 84: 461-466.
356. Washburn, B. E., Barnes, T. G., and Sole, J. D. 2000. Improving northern bob-white habitat by converting tall fescue fields to native warm-season grasses. Wildlife Soc. Bull. 28: 97-104.
357. Weimer, M. R., Swisher, B. A., and Vogel, K. P. 1988. Metabolism as a basis for differential atrazine tolerance in warm- season forage grasses. Weed Sci. 36: 436-440.
358. Weiser, G. C., and Smith, R. L. 1988. Nitrogen related characteristics of switchgrass and bahiagrass in Florida. Soil Crop Sci. Soc. Florida Proc. 47: 161-164.
359. Welbaum, G. E., Sturz, A. V., Dong, Z., and Nowak, J. 2004. Managing soil microorganisms to improve productivity of agro-ecosystems. Critical Rev. Plant Sci. 23: 175-193.
360. Wilson, G. W. T., Hartnett, D. C., Smith, M. D., and Kobbeman, K. 2001. Effects of mycorrhizae on growth and demography of tallgrass prairie forbs. Amer. J. Botany 88: 1452-1457.
361. Wilson, R. G. 1995. Effect of imazethapyr on perennial grasses. Weed Tech. 9: 187-191.
362. Wiselogel, A. E., Agblevor, F. A., Johnson, D. K., Deutch, S., Fennell, J. A., and Sanderson, M. A. 1996. Compositional changes during storage of large round switchgrass bales. Bioresource Tech. 56: 103-109.
363. Wolf, D. D., and Fiske, D. A. 1995. Planting and Managing Switchgrass for Forage Wildlife, and Conservation. Virginia Cooperative Extension Pub. no. 418-013, Blacksburg, VA.
364. Wolf, D. D., Parrish, D. J., Daniels, W. L., and McKenna, J. R. 1989. No-till establishment of perennial, warm-season grasses for biomass production. Biomass 20: 209-217.
365. Wright, N. A. 1990. Screening of herbaceous species for energy crops on wet soils in Ohio. In: Advances in New Crops, pp. 263-267. Janick, J. and Simon, J. E., Eds., Timber Press, Portland, OR.
366. Wu, J., Mersie, W., Atalay, A., and Seybold, C. A. 2003. Copper retention from runoff by switchgrass and tall fescue filter strips. J. Soil Water Conserv. 58: 67-73.
367. Wullschleger, S. D., Sanderson, M. A., McLaughlin, S. B., Biradar, D. P., and Rayburn, A. L. 1996. Photosynthetic rates and ploidy levels among populations of switchgrass. Crop Sci. 36: 306-312.
368. Xu, B., Shan, L., Huang, J., and Huang, Z. 2003. Comparison of water use efficiency and root/shoot ratio in seedling stage of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) and old world bluestems (Bothriochloa ischaemum) under different soil water conditions. Acta Prataculturae Sinica 12: 73-77.
369. Xu, B., Shan, L., Huang, Z., and Liu, G. 2003. Comparison of photosynthetic characteristics of Bothriochloa ischaemum and Panicum virgatum in the loess hilly-gully region of China. Grassland of China 25: 1-4.
370. Zak, J. M. 1977. Direct seeding of grass species for sand dune stabilization on the mid-Atlantic sea coast. Int. J. Biometeorology 21: 238-244.
371. Zan, C. S., Fyles, J. W., Girouard, P., and Samson, R. A. 2001. Carbon sequestration in perennial bioenergy, annual corn and uncultivated systems in southern Quebec. Agriculture, Ecosystems Environ. 86: 135-144.
372. Zarnstorff, M. E. 1990. Physioecological effects of cultural and pesticide management on no-till establishment of switchgrass and seed dormancy. Dissertation Abstr. Int. B, Sci. Eng. 51: 3197B.
373. Zarnstorff, M. E., Keys, R. D., and Chamblee, D. S. 1994. Growth regulator and seed storage effects on switchgrass germination. Agron. J. 86: 667-672.
374. Zeiders, K. E. 1984. Helminthosporium spot blotch of switchgrass in Pennsylvania. Plant Disease 68: 120-122.
375. Zhang, J., and Maun, M. A. 1989. Seed dormancy of Panicum virgatum L. on the shoreline sand dunes of Lake Erie. Amer. Midland Naturalist 122: 77-87.
376. Zhang, J., and Maun, M. A. 1990. Sand burial effect on seed germination, seedling emergence and establishment of Panicum virgatum. Holarctic Ecology 13: 56-61.
377. Zhang, J. H., and Maun, M. A. 1991. Effects of partial removal of seed reserves on some aspects of seedling ecology of 7 dune species. Can. J. Botany 69: 1457-1462.