Neuroimaging in anxiety disorders

Journal of Neural Transmission

Volumn 116, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 703-716

  Engel, Kirsten ^a   Bandelow, Borwin ^a   Gruber, Oliver ^a   Wedekind, Dirk ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GÖTTINGEN   (Germany)

Author keywords

Anxiety disorders; FMRI; Insular cortex; Limbic system; Neuroimaging; Panic disorder; Phobia; Prefrontal cortex

Indexed keywords

BENZODIAZEPINE RECEPTOR; CHOLECYSTOKININ; DOXAPRAM; FLUMAZENIL C 11; FLUORODEOXYGLUCOSE F 18; FLUOXETINE; IOMAZENIL; LACTATE SODIUM; RADIOLIGAND; TETRAGASTRIN; VENLAFAXINE; YOHIMBINE;

BRAIN BLOOD FLOW; BRAIN REGION; COGNITIVE THERAPY; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DRUG UPTAKE; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER; HUMAN; NEUROBIOLOGY; NEUROIMAGING; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PANIC; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROVOCATION TEST; REVIEW; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY; SOCIAL PHOBIA;

ANIMALS; ANXIETY DISORDERS; BRAIN; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; HUMANS;

EID: 67449158936     PISSN: 03009564     EISSN: 14351463     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00702-008-0077-9     Document Type: Review

References (149)

1. O Agid B Lerer 1999 Risperidone augmentation of paroxetine in a case of severe, treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder without comorbid psychopathology J Clin Psychiatry 60 55 56
2. J Amat MV Baratta E Paul ST Bland LR Watkins SF Maier 2005 Medial prefrontal cortex determines how stressor controllability affect behavior and dorsal raphe nucleus Nat Neurosci 8 365 371
3. N Amir H Klumpp J Elias AJ Bedwell N Yanasak LS Miller 2005 Increasing activation of the anterior cingulate cortex during processing of disgust faces in individuals with social phobia Biol Psychiatry 57 975 981
4. American Psychiatric Association (1998) Diagnostic and statistical manual for psychiatric disorders (DSM-IV) German Version. In: Saß H, Wittchen HU, Zaudig M (eds) Hogrefe, Göttingen
5. E Arce AN Simmons KL Lovero MB Stein MP Paulus 2008 Escitalopram effects on insula and amygdala BOLD activation during emotional processing Psychopharmacology (Berl) 196 661 672
6. S Ball A Shekhar 1997 Basilar artery response to hyperventilation in panic disorder Am J Psychiatry 154 1603 1604
7. C Benkelfat J Bradwejn E Meyer M Ellenbogen S Milot A Gjedde A Evans 1995 Functional neuroanatomy of CCK4-induced anxiety in normal healthy volunteers Am J Psychiatry 152 1180 1184
8. RL Berkowitz JD Coplan DP Reddy JM Gorman 2007 The human dimension: how the prefrontal cortex modulates the subcortical fear response Rev Neurosci 18 3-4 191 207
9. M Beauregard 2007 Mind does really matter: evidence from neuroimaging studies of emotional self-regulation, psychotherapy, and placebo effect Prog Neurobiol 81 4 218 236
10. N Birbaumer W Grodd O Diedrich U Klose M Erb M Lotze F Schneider U Weiss H Flor 1998 fMRI reveals amygdala activation to human faces in social phobics Neuroreport 9 1223 1226
11. A Bisaga JL Katz A Antonini CE Wright C Margouleff JM Gorman D Eidelberg 1998 Cerebral glucose metabolism in women with panic disorder Am J Psychiatry 155 1178 1183
12. ML Boshuisen GJ Ter Horst AM Paans AA Reinders JA den Boer 2002 rCBF differences between panic disorder patients and control subjects during anticipatory anxiety and rest Biol Psychiatry 52 126 135
13. CA Brandt J Meller L Keweloh K Hoschel J Staedt D Munz G Stoppe 1998 Increased benzodiazepine receptor density in the prefrontal cortex in patients with panic disorder J Neural Transm 105 1325 1333
14. JD Bremner 2004 Brain imaging in anxiety disorders Expert Rev Neurother 4 275 284
15. JD Bremner RB Innis T White M Fujita D Silbersweig AW Goddard L Staib E Stern A Cappiello S Woods R Baldwin DS Charney 2000 SPECT [I-123]iomazenil measurement of the benzodiazepine receptor in panic disorder Biol Psychiatry 47 96 106
16. MS Buchsbaum JC Wu LE DeLisi HH Holcomb E Hazlett K Cooper-Langston R Kessler 1987 Positron emission tomography studies of basal ganglia and somatosensory cortex neuroleptic drug effects: differences between normal controls and schizophrenic patients Biol Psychiatry 22 479 494
17. A Bystritsky D Pontillo M Powers FW Sabb MG Craske SY Bookheimer 2001 Functional MRI changes during panic anticipation and imagery exposure Neuroreport 12 3953 3957
18. OG Cameron GC Huang T Nichols RA Koeppe S Minoshima D Rose KA Frey 2007 Reduced gamma-aminobutyric acid(A)-benzodiazepine binding sites in insular cortex of individuals with panic disorder Arch Gen Psychiatry 64 793 800
19. DW Campbell J Sareen MP Paulus PR Goldin MB Stein JP Reiss 2007 Time-varying amygdala response to emotional faces in generalized social phobia Biol Psychiatry 62 455 463
20. HD Critchley CJ Mathias RJ Dolan 2002 Fear conditioning in humans: the influence of awareness and autonomic arousal on functional neuroanatomy Neuron 33 653 663
21. SR Dager KI Marro TL Richards GD Metzger 1994 Preliminary application of magnetic resonance spectroscopy to investigate lactate-induced panic Am J Psychiatry 151 57 63
22. SR Dager T Richards W Strauss A Artru 1997 Single-voxel 1H-MRS investigation of brain metabolic changes during lactate-induced panic Psychiatry Res 76 89 99
23. SR Dager SD Friedman A Heide ME Layton T Richards A Artru W Strauss C Hayes S Posse 1999 Two-dimensional proton echo-planar spectroscopic imaging of brain metabolic changes during lactate-induced panic Arch Gen Psychiatry 56 70 77
24. AR Damasio 1996 The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 351 1413 1420
25. U Dannlowski P Ohrmann J Bauer H Kugel V Arolt W Heindel A Kersting BT BAune T Suslow 2007 Amygdala reactivity to masked negative faces is associated with automatic judgemental bias in major depression: a 3 T fMRI study J Psychiatry Neurosci 32 423 429
26. Davidson JR, Krishnan KR, Charles HC, Boyko O, Potts NL, Ford SM, Patterson L (1993) Magnetic resonance spectroscopy in social phobia: preliminary findings. J Clin Psychiatry 54(Suppl):19-25
27. MD De Bellis MS Keshavan H Shifflett S Iyengar RE Dahl DA Axelson B Birmaher J Hall G Moritz ND Ryan 2002 Superiortemporal gyrus volumes in pediatric generalized anxiety disorder Biol Psychiatry 51 553 562
28. MT De Cristofaro A Sessarego A Pupi F Biondi C Faravelli 1993 Brain perfusion abnormalities in drug-naive, lactate-sensitive panic patients: a SPECT study Biol Psychiatry 33 505 512
29. K Domschke M Braun P Ohrmann T Suslow H Kugel J Bauer C Hohoff A Kersting A Engelien V Arolt W Heindel J Deckert 2006 Association of the functional-1019C/G 5-HT1A polymorphism with prefrontal cortex and amygdala activation measured with 3 T fMRI in panic disorder Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 9 349 355
30. WC Drevets TQ Videen AK MacLeod JW Haller ME Raichle 1992 PET images of blood flow changes during anxiety: correction Science 256 1696
31. I Eren R Tukel A Polat R Karaman S Unal 2003 Evaluation of regional cerebral blood flow changes in panic disorder with Tc99m-HMPAO SPECT Psychiatry Res 123 135 143
32. Eser D, Leicht G, Lutz J, Wenninger S, Kirsch V, Schüle C, Karch S, Baghai T, Pogarell O, Born C, Rupprecht R, Mulert C (2007) Functional neuroanatomy of CCK-4-induced panic attacks in healthy volunteers. Hum Brain Mapp (E-pub)
33. A Etkin TD Wager 2007 Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: a meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia Am J Psychiatry 164 1476 1488
34. A Etkin KC Klemenhagen JT Dudman MT Rogan R Hen ER Kandel J Hirsch 2004 Individual differences intrait anxiety predict the response of the basolateral amygdala to unconsciously processed fearful faces Neuron 44 1043 1055
35. A Etkin T Egner DM Peraza ER Kandel J Hirsch 2006 Resolving emotional conflict: a role for the rostral anterior cingulate cortex in modulating activity in the amygdala Neuron 51 871 882
36. KC Evans CI Wright MM Wedig AL Gold MH Pollack SL Rauch 2007 A functional MRI study of amygdala responses to angry schematic faces in social anxiety disorder Depress Anxiety 10 1 10
37. R Fontaine G Breton R Dery S Fontaine R Elie 1990 Temporal lobe abnormalities in panic disorder: an MRI study Biol Psychiatry 27 304 310
38. M Fredrikson G Wik H Fischer J Andersson 1995 Affective and attentive neural networks in humans: a PET study of Pavlovian conditioning Neuroreport 7 97 101
39. T Furmark H Fischer G Wik M Larsson M Fredrikson 1997 The amygdala and individual differences in human fear conditioning Neuroreport 8 3957 3960
40. T Furmark M Tillfors I Marteinsdottir H Fischer A Pissiota B Langstrom M Fredrikson 2002 Common changes in cerebral blood flow in patients with social phobia treated with citalopram or cognitive-behavioral therapy Arch Gen Psychiatry 59 425 433
41. T Furmark M Tillfors H Garpensrand I Marteinsdottir B Langström L Oreland M Fredrikson 2004 Serotonin transporter polymorphism related to amygdala exitability and symptom severity in patients with social phobia Neurosci Lett 362 189 192
42. T Furmark L Appel A Michelgard K Wahlstedt F Ahs S Zancan E Jacobsson K Flyckt M Grohp M Bergström EM Pich LG Nilsson M Bani B Langström M Fredrikson 2005 Cerebral blood flow changes after treatment of social phobia with the neurokinin-1 antagonist GR205171, citalopram, or placebo Biol Psychiatry 58 132 142
43. A Garakani MS Bucjsbaum RE Mewmark C Goodman CJ Aaronson JM Martinez Y Torosjan KW Chu JM Gorman 2007 The effect of doxapram on brain imaging with panic disorder Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 17 10 672 686
44. ND Giardino SD Friedman SR Dager 2007 Anxiety, respiration, and cerebral blood flow: implications for functional brain imaging Compr Psychiatry 48 103 112
45. AW Goddard GF Mason A Almai DL Rothman KL Behar OA Petroff DS Charney JH Krystal 2001 Reductions in occipital cortex GABA levels in panic disorder detected with 1 h-magnetic resonance spectroscopy Arch Gen Psychiatry 58 556 561
46. AW Goddard GF Mason M Appel DL Rothman R Gueorguieva KL Behar JH Krystal 2004 Impaired GABA neuronal response to acute benzodiazepine administration in panic disorder Am J Psychiatry 161 2186 2193
47. L Goosens K Schruers R Peeters E Griez S Sunaert 2007 Visual presentation of phobic stimuli: amygdala activation via an extrageniculostriate pathway? Psychiatry Res 155 113 120
48. L Goosens S Sunaert R Peeters EJ Griez KR Schruers 2007 Amygdala hyperfunction in phobic fear normalizes after exposure Biol Psychiatry 62 1119 1125
49. JM Gorman JM Kent GM Sullivan JD Coplan 2000 Neuroanatomical hypothesis of panic disorder, revised Am J Psychiatry 157 493 505
50. JA Gottfried RJ Dolan 2004 Human orbitofrontal cortex mediates extinction learning while accessing conditioned representations of value Nature Neurosci 7 1144 1152
51. W Grodd F Schneider U Klose T Nagele 1995 Functional magnetic resonance tomography of psychological functions exemplified by experimentally induced emotions Radiologe 35 283 289
52. BW Haas K Omura RT Constable T Canli 2007 Emotional conflict and neuroticism: personality-dependent activation in the amygdala and subgenual anterior cingulate Behav Neurosci 121 249 256
53. BJ Ham Y Sung N Kim SJ Kim JE Kim DJ Kim JY Lee JH Kim SJ Yoon IK Lyoo 2007 Decreased GABA levels in anterior cingulate and basal ganglia in medicated subjects with panic disorder: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) study Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 31 403 411
54. A Hermann A Schäfer B Walter R Stark D Vaitl A Schienle 2007 Diminished medial prefrontal cortex activity in blood-injection-injury phobia Biol Psychiatry 75 124 130
55. C Herry DR Bach F Esposito F Di Salle WJ Perrig K Scheffler A Luthi E Seifritz 2007 Processing of temporal unpredictability in human and animal amygdala J Neurosci 27 5958 5966
56. U Herwig T Baumgartner T Kaffenberger A Bruhl M Kottlow U Schreiter-Gasser B Abler L Jancke M Rufer 2007 Modulation of anticipatory emotion and perception processing by cognitive control Neuroimage 37 652 662
57. J Jensen AR McIntosh AP Crawley DJ Mikulis G Remington S Kapur 2003 Direct activation of the ventral striatum in anticipation of aversive stimuli Neuron 40 1251 1257
58. W Kaschka H Feistel D Ebert 1995 Reduced benzodiazepine receptor binding in panic disorders measured by iomazenil SPECT J Psychiatr Res 29 427 434
59. Kelsey JE, Selvig AL, Knight BT (2000) Treatment of generalized anxiety disorder social phobia with the 5HT2 antagonist nefazodone, Anxiety disorders of America's 20th annual conference. Washington DC
60. CD Kilts JE Kelsey B Knight TD Ely F DuBois Bowman RE Gross A Selvig A Gordon DJ Newport CB Nemeroff 2006 The neural correlates of social anxiety disorder and response to pharmacotherapy Neuropsychopharmacology 31 2243 2253
61. JT Kuikka A Pitkanen U Lepola K Partanen P Vainio KA Bergstrom HJ Wieler KP Kaiser L Mittelbach H Koponen 1995 Abnormal regional benzodiazepine receptor uptake in the prefrontal cortex in patients with panic disorder Nucl Med Commun 16 273 280
62. KS LaBar JC Gatenby JC Gore JE LeDoux EA Phelps 1998 Human amygdala activation during conditioned fear acquisition and extinction: a mixed-trial fMRI study Neuron 20 937 945
63. RR Lanzenberger M Mitterhauser C Spindelegger W Wadsak N Klein LK Mien A Holik T Attarbaschi N Mossaheb J Sacher T Geiss-Granadia K Kletter S Kasper J Tauscher 2007 Reduced serotonin-1A receptor binding in social anxiety disorder Biol Psychiatry 61 9 1081 1089
64. CL Larson HS Schaefer GJ Siegle CAB Jackson MJ Anderle RJ Davidson 2006 Fear is fast in phobic individuals: amygdala activation in response to fear-relevant stimuli Biol Psychiatry 60 410 417
65. CJ Lauer JC Krieg 1992 Sleep electroencephalographic patterns and cranial computed tomography in anxiety disorders Compr Psychiatry 33 213 219
66. LeDoux JE (1996) The emotional brain: the mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. Simon and Schuster, New York
67. YS Lee J Hwang SJ Kim YH Sung J Kim ME Sim SC Bae MJ Kim IK Lyoo 2006 Decreased blood flow of temporal regions of the brain in subjects with panic disorder J Psychiatr Res 40 528 534
68. U Lepola U Nousiainen M Puranen P Riekkinen R Rimon 1990 EEG and CT findings in patients with panic disorder Biol Psychiatry 28 721 727
69. D Li P Chokka P Tibbo 2001 Toward an integrative understanding of social phobia J Psychiatry Neurosci 26 190 202
70. JP Lorberbaum S Kose MR Johnson GW Arana LK Sullivan MB Hamner JC Ballenger RB Lydiard PS Brodrick DE Bohning MS George 2004 Neural correlates of speech anticipatory anxiety in generalized social phobia Neuroreport 15 2701 2705
71. RJ Maddock MH Buonocore SJ Kile AS Garrett 2003 Brain regions showing increased activation by threat-related words in panic disorder Neuroreport 14 325 328
72. AL Malizia VJ Cunningham CJ Bell PF Liddle T Jones DJ Nutt 1998 Decreased brain GABA(A)-benzodiazepine receptor binding in panic disorder: preliminary results from a quantitative PET study Arch Gen Psychiatry 55 715 720
73. AL Malizia SJ Wilson CM Bell DJ Nutt PM Grasby 1997 Neural correlates of anxiety provocation in social phobia Neuroimage 5 301 305
74. E Maron JT Kuikka J Shlik V Vasar E Vanninen J Tiihonen 2004 Reduced brain serotonin transporter binding in patients with panic disorder Psychiatry Res 132 2 173 181
75. G Massana C Gasto C Junque JM Mercader B Gomez J Massana X Torres M Salamero 2002 Reduced levels of creatine in the right medial temporal lobe region of panic disorder patients detected with (1)H magnetic resonance spectroscopy Neuroimage 16 836 842
76. G Massana JM Serra-Grabulosa P Salgado-Pineda C Gasto C Junque J Massana JM Mercader B Gomez A Tobena M Salamero 2003 Amygdalar atrophy in panic disorder patients detected by volumetric magnetic resonance imaging Neuroimage 19 1 80 90
77. G Massana JM Serra-Grabulosa P Salgado-Pineda C Gasto C Junque J Massana JM Mercader 2003 Parahippocampal gray matter density in panic disorder: a voxel-based morphometric study Am J Psychiatry 160 566 568
78. AM Mathews WH Wilson 1987 Cerebral blood flow changes Psychiatry Res 23 285 294
79. SJ Mathew X Mao JD Coplan EL Smnith HA Sackeim JM Gorman DC Shungu 2004 Dorsolateral prefrontal cortical pathology in generalized anxiety disorder: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging study Am J Psychiatry 161 1 1119 1121
80. EB McClure A Adler CS Monk J CAmeron S Smith EE Nelson E Leibenluft M Ernst DS Pine 2007 fMRI predictors of treatment outcome in pediatric anxiety disorders Psychopharmacology (Berl) 191 97 105
81. MR Milad GJ Quirk 2002 Neurons in medial prefrontal cortex signal memory for fear extinction Nature 420 70 74
82. CM Miner JR Davidson NL Potts LA Tupler HC Charles KR Krishnan 1995 Brain fluoxetine measurements using fluorine magnetic resonance spectroscopy in patients with social phobia Biol Psychiatry 38 696 698
83. CS Monk EE Nelson EB McClure K Mogg BP Bradley E Leibenluft RJ Blair G Chen DS Charney M Ernst DS Pine 2006 Ventrolateral prefrontal cortex activation and attentional bias in response to angry faces in adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder Am J Psychiatry 163 1091 1097
84. CS Monk EH Telzer K Mogg BP Bradley X MAi HM Louro G Chen EB McClure-Tone M Ernst DS Pine 2008 Amygdala and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex activation to masked angry faces in children and adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder Arch Gen Psychiatry 65 568 576
85. JS Morris CD Frith DI Perrett D Rowland AW Young AJ Calder RJ Dolan 1996 A differential neural response in the human amygdala to fearful and happy facial expressions Nature 383 812 815
86. A Neumeister E Bain AC Nugent RE Carson O Bonne DA Luckenbaugh W Eckelman P Herscovitch DS Charney WC Drevets 2004 Reduced serotonin type 1A receptor binding in panic disorder J Neurosci 24 589 591
87. R Norbury CE Mackay PJ Cowen GM Goodwin CJ Harmer 2007 Short-term antidepressant treatment and facial processing. A functional magnetic resonance imaging study Br J Psychiatry 190 531 532
88. TE Nordahl WE Semple M Gross TA Mellman MB Stein P Goyer AC King TW Uhde RM Cohen 1990 Cerebral glucose metabolic differences in patients with panic disorder Neuropsychopharmacology 3 261 272
89. DJ Nutt 2001 Neurobiological mechanisms in generalized anxiety disorder J Clin Psychiatry 62 Suppl 11 22 27 discussion 28
90. RE O'Carroll AP Moffoot M Van Beck N Dougall C Murray KP Ebmeier GM Goodwin 1993 The effect of anxiety induction on the regional uptake of 99mTc-exametazime in simple phobia as shown by single photon emission tomography (SPET) J Affect Disord 28 203 210
91. A Ontiveros R Fontaine G Breton R Elie S Fontaine R Dery 1989 Correlation of severity of panic disorder and neuroanatomical changes on magnetic resonance imaging J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1 404 408
92. MP Paulus JS Feinstein A Simmons MB Stein 2004 Anterior cingulate activation in high trait anxious subjects is related to altered error processing during decision making Biol Psychiatry 55 1179 1187
93. B Pfleiderer S Zinkirciran V Arolt W Heindel J Deckert K Domschke 2007 fMRI amygdala activation during a spontaneous panic attack in apatient with panic disorder World J Biol Psychiatry 8 4 269 272
94. KL Phan T Wager SF Taylor I Liberzon 2002 Functional neuroanatomy of emotion: a meta-analysis of emotion activation studies in PET and fMRI Neuroimage 16 331 348
95. KL Phan DA Fitzgerald PJ Nathan ME Tancer 2006 Association between amygdala hyperactivity to harsh faces and severity of social anxiety in generalized social phobia Biol Psychiatry 59 424 429
96. EA Phelps MR Delgado KI Nearing JE LeDoux 2004 Extinction learning in humans: role of the amygdala and the vmPFC Neuron 43 897 903
97. SS Pillay SA Gruber J Rogowska N Simpson DA Yurgelun-Todd 2006 fMRI of fearful facial affect recognition in panic disorder: the cingulate gyrus-amygdala connection J Affect Disord 94 173 181
98. SS Pillay J Rogowska SA Gruber N Simpson DA Yurgelun-Todd 2007 Recognition of happy facial affect in panic disorder: an fMRI study J Anxiety Disord 21 381 393
99. NL Potts S Book JR Davidson 1996 The neurobiology of social phobia Int Clin Psychopharmacol 11 Suppl 3 43 48
100. J Prasko J Horacek R Zalesky M Kopecek T Novak B PAskova L Skrdlantova O Belohlavek C Höschl 2004 The change of regional brain metabolism (18FDG PET) in panic disorder during the treatment with cognitive behavioral treatment or antidepressants Neuro Endocrinol Lett 25 5 348 348
101. X Protopopescu H Pan O Tuescher M Cloitre M Goldstein A Engelien Y Yang J Gorman J LeDoux E Stern D Silbersweig 2006 Increased brainstem volume in panic disorder: a voxel-based morphometric study Neuroreport 17 361 363
102. GJ Quirk E Kikhtik J Pelletier D Paré 2003 Stimulation of medial prefrontal cortex decreases the responsiveness of central amygdala output neurons J Neurosci 23 25 8800 8807
103. SL Rauch CR Savage NM Alpert EC Miguel L Baer HC Breiter AJ Fischman PA Manzo C Moretti MA Jenike 1995 A positron emission tomographic study of simple phobic symptom provocation Arch Gen Psychiatry 52 20 28
104. EM Reiman 1997 The application of positron emission tomography to the study of normal and pathologic emotions J Clin Psychiatry 58 16 4 12
105. EM Reiman MJ Fusselman PT Fox ME Raichle 1989 Neuroanatomical correlates of anticipatory anxiety [published erratum appears in Science 1992 Jun 19;256(5064)1696] Science 243 1071 1074
106. Y Sakai H Kumano M Nishikawa Y Sakano H Kaiya E Imabayashi T Ohnishi H Matsuda A Yasuda A Sato M Diksic T Kuboki 2005 Cerebral glucose metabolism associated with a fear network in panic disorder Neuroreport 16 9 927 931
107. J Sareen DW Campbell WD Leslie KL Malisza MB Stein MP Paulus LB Kravetsky KD Kjernisted JR Walker JP Reiss 2007 Striatal function in generalized social phobia: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study Biol Psychiatry 61 396 404
108. A Schienle A Schäfer B Walter R Stark D Vaitl 2005 Brain activation of spider phobics towards disorder-relevant, generally disgust- and fear-inducuíng pictures Neurosci Lett 388 1 6
109. A Schienle A Schäfer A Hermann S Rohrmann D Vaitl 2007 Symptom provocation and reduction in patients suffering from spider phobia: an fMRI study on exposure therapy Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 257 486 493
110. S Schlegel H Steinert A Bockisch K Hahn R Schloesser O Benkert 1994 Decreased benzodiazepine receptor binding in panic disorder measured by IOMAZENIL-SPECT. A preliminary report Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 244 49 51
111. F Schneider U Weiss C Kessler HW Muller-Gartner S Posse JB Salloum W Grodd F Himmelmann W Gaebel N Birbaumer 1999 Subcortical correlates of differential classical conditioning of aversive emotional reactions in social phobia Biol Psychiatry 45 863 871
112. FR Schneier MR Liebowitz A Abi-Dargham Y Zea-Ponce SH Lin M Laruelle 2000 Low dopamine D(2) receptor binding potential in social phobia Am J Psychiatry 157 457 459
113. T Schunck G Erb A Mathis C Gilles IJ Namer Y Hode A Demaziere R Luthringer JP Macher 2006 Functional magnetic resonance imaging characterization of CCK-4-induced panic attack and subsequent anticipatory anxiety Neuroimage 31 1197 1208
114. CE Schwartz CI Wright LM Shin J Kagan SL Rauch 2003 Inhibited and uninhibited infants "grown up": adult amygdalar response to novelty Science 300 1952 1953
115. T Shioiri T Kato J Murashita H Hamakawa T Inubushi S Takahashi 1996 High-energy phosphate metabolism in the frontal lobes of patients with panic disorder detected by phase-encoded 31P-MRS Biol Psychiatry 40 785 793
116. A Simmons SC Matthews MB Stein MP Paulus 2004 Anticipation of emotionally aversive visual stimuli activates right insula Neuroreport 15 2261 2265
117. LH Somerville H Kim T Johnstone AL Alexander PJ Whalen 2004 Human amygdala responses during presentation of happy and neutral faces: correlations with state anxiety Biol Psychiatry 55 897 903
118. MB Stein WD Leslie 1996 A brain single photon-emission computed tomography (SPECT) study of generalized social phobia Biol Psychiatry 39 825 828
119. MB Stein PR Goldin J Sareen LT Zorrilla GG Brown 2002 Increased amygdala activation to angry and contemptuous faces in generalized social phobia Arch Gen Psychiatry 59 1027 1034
120. MB Stein AN Simmons JS Feinstein MP Pauls 2007 Increased amygdala and insula activation during emotion processing in anxiety-prone subjects Am J Psychiatry 164 318 327
121. RS Stewart MD Devous Sr AJ Rush L Lane FJ Bonte 1988 Cerebral blood flow changes during sodium-lactate-induced panic attacks Am J Psychiatry 145 442 449
122. T Straube HJ Mentzel M Glauer WHR Miltner 2004 Brain activation to phobia related words in phobic subjects Neurosci Lett 372 204 208
123. T Straube IT Kolassa M Glauer HJ Mentzel WHR Miltner 2004 Effect of task conditions on brain responses to threatening faces in social phobics: an event related functional magnetic resonance imaging study Biol Psychiatry 56 921 930
124. T Straube HJ Mentzel WHR Miltner 2005 Common and distinct brain activation to threat and safety signals in social phobia Neuropsychobiology 52 163 168
125. T Straube HJ Mentzel WHR Miltner 2006 Neural mechanisms of automatic and direct processing of phobogenic stimuli in specific phobia Biol Psychiatry 59 162 170
126. T Straube M Glauer S Dilger HJ Mentzel WHR Miltner 2006 Effects of cognitive behavioral therapy on brain activation in specific phobia Neuroimage 29 125 135
127. T Straube HJ Mentzel WH Miltner 2007 Waiting for spiders: brain activation during anticipatory anxiety in spider phobics Neuroimage 37 1427 1436
128. J Tiihonen J Kuikka K Bergstrom U Lepola H Koponen E Leinonen 1997 Dopamine reuptake site densities in patients with social phobia Am J Psychiatry 154 239 242
129. M Tillfors T Furmark I Marteinsdottir M Fredrikson 2002 Cerebral blood flow during anticipation of public speaking in social phobia: a PET study Biol Psychiatry 52 1113 1119
130. LA Tupler JR Davidson RD Smith F Lazeyras HC Charles KR Krishnan 1997 A repeat proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study in social phobia Biol Psychiatry 42 419 424
131. RR Uchida CM Del-Ben AC Santos D Araujo JA Crippa FS Guimaraes FG Graeff 2003 Decreased left temporal lobe volume of panic patients measured by magnetic resonance imaging Braz J Med Biol Res 36 925 929
132. TW Uhde WH Berrettini PP Roy Byrne JP Boulenger RM Post 1987 Platelet [3H]imipramine binding in patients with panic disorder Biol Psychiatry 22 52 58
133. M van Ameringen C Mancini JM Oakman M Kamath C Nahmias HA Szechtman 1998 Pilot study of PET in social phobia Biol Psychiatry 43 31 37
134. OA van den Heuvel DJ Veltman HJ Groenewegen MP Witter J Merkelbach DC Cath AJ van Balkom P van Oppen R van Dyck 2005 Disorder-specific neuroanatomical correlates of attentional bias in obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder, and hypochondriasis Arch Gen Psychiatry 62 922 933
135. GJ van der Linden DJ Stein AJ van Balkom 2000 The efficacy of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for social anxiety disorder (social phobia) a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials Int Clin Psychopharmacol 15 Suppl 2 S15 S23
136. R Veit H Flor M Erb C Hermann M Lotze W Grodd N Birbaumer 2002 Brain circuits involved in emotional learning in antisocial behavior and social phobia in humans Neurosci Lett 328 233 236
137. DJ Veltman WE Tuinebreijer D Winkelman AA Lamertsma MP Witter RJ Dolan PMG Emmelkamp 2004 Neurophysiological correlates of habituation during exposure in spider phobia Psychiatry Res 132 149 158
138. U Volpe E Merlotti A Mucci S Galderisi 2004 The contribution of brain imaging to the study of panic disorder Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc 13 4 237 248
139. M Vythilingam ER Anderson A Goddard SW Woods LH Staib DS Charney JD Bremner 2000 Temporal lobe volume in panic disorder. A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study Psychiatry Res 99 75 82
140. PJ Whalen T Johnstone LH Somerville JB Nitschke S Polis AL Alexander RJ Davidson NH Kalin 2008 A functional magnetic resonance imaging predictor of treatment response to venlafaxine in generalized anxiety disorder Biol Psychiatry 63 858 863
141. World Health Organisation (WHO) 1993 International classification of psychiatric disorders (Internationale Klassifikation psychischer Störungen): ICD-10, Kapitel V(F); klinisch-diagnostische Leitlinien, 2.Auflage; WHO, Bern, Göttingen, Toronto, Seattle
142. G Wik M Fredrikson H Fischer 1997 Evidence of altered cerebral blood-flow relationships in acute phobia Int J Neurosci 91 253 263
143. SW Woods K Koster JK Krystal EO Smith IG Zubal PB Hoffer DS Charney 1988 Yohimbine alters regional cerebral blood flow in panic disorder (letter) Lancet 2 678
144. CI Wright B Martis K McMullin LM Shin SL Rauch 2003 Amygdala and insular responses to emotionally valenced human faces in small animal specific phobia Biol Psychiatry 54 1067 1076
145. J Wu M Buchsbaum T Hershey E Hazlett N Sciotte J Johnson 1991 PET in generalized anxiety disorder Biol Psychiat 29 1181 1199
146. C Wurthmann B Bogerts J Gregor B Baumann O Effenberger W Dohring 1997 Frontal CSF enlargement in panic disorder: a qualitative CT-scan study Psychiatry Res 76 83 87
147. L Yaguez S Coen LJ Gregory E Amaro C Altman M Brammer ET Bullmore SCR Williams Q Aziz 2005 Brain response to visceral aversive conditioning: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study Gastroenterology 128 1819 1829
148. HK Yoo MJ Kim SJ Kim YH Sung ME Sim YS Lee SY Song BS Kee IK Lyoo 2005 Putaminal gray matter volume decrease in panic disorder: an optimized voxel-based morphometry study Eur J Neurosci 22 2089 2094
149. KL Yoon DA Fitzgerald M Angstadt RA McCarron KL Phan 2007 Amygdala reactivity to emotional faces at high and low intensity in generalized social phobia: a 4-Tesla functional MRI study Psychiatry Res 154 93 98