Food chains in freshwaters

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Volumn 1162, Issue , 2009, Pages 187-220

  Sabo, John L ^a   Finlay, Jacques C ^b   Post, David M ^c  

^a ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

^c YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Bioaccumulation; Biomanipulation; Climate change; Disturbance; Dynamic stability; Ecosystem size; Energetics; Food chain length; Freshwater; Resource availability; Stable isotope

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURE; BIOLOGICAL PEST CONTROL; BIOMASS; CLIMATE CHANGE; CONSUMER; DROUGHT; ENERGY RESOURCE; FOOD CHAIN; FOOD WEB; FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENT; HYDROLOGY; LAKE; NONHUMAN; POND; PREDATOR; REVIEW; STREAM (RIVER); WETLAND; ANIMAL; ECOSYSTEM; HUMAN;

ANIMALIA;

FRESH WATER;

ANIMALS; ECOSYSTEM; FOOD CHAIN; FRESH WATER; HUMANS;

EID: 66149150283     PISSN: 00778923     EISSN: 17496632     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04445.x     Document Type: Review

References (163)

1. Bascompte, J., P. Jordano, C.J. Melian & J.M. Olesen. 2003. The nested assembly of plant-animal mutualistic networks. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100: 9383-9387.
2. Benke, A.C. & J.B. Wallace. 1997. Trophic basis of production among riverine caddisflies: implications for food web analysis. Ecology 78: 1132-1145.
3. Benson, M.A. 1968. Uniform flood-frequency estimating methods for federal agencies. Water Resour. Res. 4: 891-908.
4. Bentzen, E., D.R.S. Lean, W.D. Taylor & D. Mackay. 1996. Role of food web structure on lipid and bioaccumulation of organic contaminants by lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 53: 2397-2407.
5. Berlow, E.L. 1999. Strong effects of weak interactions in ecological communities. Nature 398: 330-334.
6. Berlow, E.L., S.A. Navarrete, C.J. Briggs, et al. 1999. Quantifying variation in the strengths of species interactions. Ecology 80: 2206-2224.
7. Berlow, E.L., A.M. Neutel, J.E. Cohen, et al. 2004. Interaction strengths in food webs: issues and opportunities. J. Ani. Ecol. 73: 585-598.
8. Branstrator, D.K., G. Cabana, A. Mazumder & J.B. Rasmussen. 2000. Measuring life-history omnivory in the opossum shrimp, Mysis relicta, with stable nitrogen isotopes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 45: 463-467.
9. Briand, F. & J.E. Cohen. 1987. Environmental correlates of food chain length. Science 238: 956-960.
10. Cabana, G. & J.B. Rasmussen. 1996. Comparison of aquatic food chains using nitrogen isotopes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93: 10844-10847.
11. Carpenter, S.R., D.L. Christensen, J.J. Cole & K.L Cottingham. 1995. Biological control of eutrophication in lakes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29: 784-786.
12. Carpenter, S.R., J.J. Cole, J.R. Hodgson, et al. 2001. Trophic cascades, nutrients & lake productivity: whole-lake experiments. Ecol. Monogr. 71: 163-186.
13. Carpenter, S.R., J.F. Kitchell, J.R. Hodgson, et al. 1987. Regulation of lake primary productivity by food web structure. Ecology 68: 1863-1876.
14. Carpenter, S.R. & J.F. Kitchell, Ed. 1993. The Trophic Cascade in Lakes. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.
15. Carpenter, S.R., J.F. Kitchell & J.R. Hodgson. 1985. Cascading trophic interactions and lake productivity. Bioscience 35: 634-639.
16. Carpenter, S.R., C.E. Kraft, R. Wright, et al. 1992. Resilience and resistance of a lake phosphorus cycle before and after food web manipulation. Am. Nat. 140: 781-798.
17. Closs, G.P. & P.S. Lake. 1994. Spatial and temporal variation in the structure of an intermittent-stream foodweb. Ecol. Monogr. 64: 1-21.
18. Cohen, J.E. 1995. Unexpected dominance of highfrequencies in chaotic nonlinear population-models. Nature 378: 610-612.
19. Cohen, J.E., R.A. Beaver, S.H. Cousins, et al. 1993. Improving food webs. Ecology 74: 252-258.
20. Cohen, J.E. & C.M. Newman. 1992. Community area and food-chain length: theoretical predictions. Am. Nat. 138: 1542-1554.
21. Cole, J.J., M.L. Pace, S.R. Carpenter & J.F. Kitchell. 2000. Persistence of net heterotrophy in lakes during nutrient addition and food web manipulations. Limnol Oceanogr. 45: 1718-1730.
22. Cousins, S. 1987. The decline of the trophic level concept. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2: 312-316.
23. DeAngelis, D.L. 1992. Dynamics of Nutrient Cycling and Food Webs. Chapman & Hall. London.
24. DeAngelis, D.L., S.M. Bartell & A.L. Brenkert. 1989. Effects of nutrient recycling and food-chain length on resilience. Am. Nat. 134: 778-805.
25. del Giorgio, P. & J.J. Cole. 1998. Bacterial growth efficiency in natural aquatic systems. Annu. Rev. Ecol Syst. 29: 503-541.
26. Diehl, S. & M. Feissel. 2000. Effects of enrichment on three-level food chains with omnivory. Am. Nat. 155: 200-218.
27. Diehl, S. & M. Feissel. 2001. Intraguild prey suffer from enrichment of their resources: a microcosm experiment with ciliates. Ecology 82: 2977-2983.
28. Doi, H., K. Chang, T. Ando, et al. 2009. Resource availability and ecosystem size predict food-chain length in pond ecosystems. Oikos 118: 138-144.
29. Elser, J.J., D.R. Dobberfuhl, N.A. MacKay & J.H. Schampel. 1996. Organism size, life history, and N:P stoichiometry. Bioscience 46: 674-684.
30. Elton, C. 1927. Animal Ecology. Sidgwick and Jackson. London.
31. Estes, J.A. & D.O. Duggins. 1995. Sea otters and kelp forests in Alaska - Generality and variation in a community ecological paradigm. Ecol. Monogr. 65: 75-100.
32. Estes, J.A., M.T. Tinker, T.M. Williams & D.F. Doak. 1998. Killer whale predation on sea otters linking oceanic and nearshore ecosystems. Science 282: 473-476.
33. Finlay, J.C. 2001. Stable-carbon-isotope ratios of river biota: implications for energy flow in lotic food webs. Ecology 82: 1052-1064.
34. Finlay, J.C., S. Khandwala & M.E. Power. 2002. Spatial
35. scales of carbon flow in a river food web. Ecology 83: 1845-1859.
36. Finlay, J.C., M.E. Power & G. Cabana. 1999. Effects of water velocity on algal carbon isotope ratios: Implications for river food web studies. Limnol. Oceanogr. 44: 1198-1203.
37. Fisher, S.G. & G.E. Likens. 1973. Energy flow in Bear Brook, New Hampshire: an integrative approach to stream ecosystem metabolism. Ecol. Monogr. 43: 421-439.
38. France, R.L. 1995. Differentiation between littoral and pelagic food webs in lakes using carbon isotopes. Limnol Oceanogr. 40: 1310-1313.
39. Hairston, N.G., F.E. Smith & L.B. Slobodkin. 1960. Community structure, population control, and competition. Am. Nat. 94: 421-425.
40. Halley, J.M. 1996. Ecology, evolution and 1/f-noise. Trends Ecol. Evol. 11: 33-37.
41. Hastings, H.M. & M. Conrad. 1979. Length and evolutionary stability of food-chains. Nature 282: 838-839.
42. Hobson, K.A. & H.E. Welch. 1992. Determination of trophic relationships within a high arctic marine food web using delta 13C and delta 15N analysis. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 84: 9-18.
43. Hoeinghaus, D.J., K.O. Winemiller & A.A. Agostinho. 2008. Hydrogeomorphology and river impoundment affect food-chain length of diverse neotropical food webs. Oikos 117: 984-995.
44. Holt, R.D. 1996. Food webs in space: an island biogeographic perspective. In Food Webs. G.A. Polis, K.O. Winemiller, Eds.: 313-323. Chapman & Hall. New Yo r k .
45. Holt, R.D. & G.A. Polis. 1997. A theoretical framework for intraguild predation. Am. Nat. 149: 745-764.
46. Hrbácek, J. 1962. Species composition and the amount of zooplankton in relation to fish stock. Ropr. Cesk. Akad. Ved Rada. Mat. Prir. Ved. 72: 116.
47. Hutchinson, G.E. 1959. Homage to Santa Rosalia; or, why are there so many kinds of animals? Am. Nat. 93: 145-159.
48. IPCC, Editor. 2007. Climate Change, 2007: Synthesis Report. IPCC. Geneva, Switzerland.
49. Jelks, H.L. et al. 2008. Conservation status of imperiled North American freshwater and diadromous fishes. Fisheries 33: 372-407.
50. Jenkins, B. & R.L. Kitching. 1990. The ecology of water-filled treeholes in Australian rainforests: food web reassembly as a measure of community recovery after disturbance. Austral. Eco. 15: 199-205.
51. Jenkins, B., R.L. Kitching & S.L. Pimm. 1992. Productivity, disturbance and food web structure at a local spatial scale in experimental container habitats. Oikos 65: 249-255.
52. Jepsen, D.B. & K.O. Winemiller. 2002. Structure of tropical river food webs revealed by stable isotope ratios. Oikos 96: 46-55.
53. Johnson, T.B. & D.O. Evans. 1991. Behaviour, energetics, and associated mortality of young-of-the-year white perch (Morone americana) and yellow perch (Perca flavescens) under simulated winter conditions. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 48: 672-680.
54. Kaunzinger, C.M.K. & P.J. Morin. 1998. Productivity controls food-chain properties in microbial communities. Nature 395: 495-497.
55. Kelly, E.N. & D.W. Schindler. 2006. Forest fire increases mercury accumulation by fishes via food web restructuring and increased mercury inputs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103: 19380-19385.
56. Kidd, K.A., R.H. Hesslein, R.J.P. Fudge & K.A. Hallard. 1995. The influence of trophic level as measured by delta-15N on mercury concentrations in freshwater organisms. Water Air Soil Pollut. 80: 1011-1015.
57. Kidd, K.A., D.W. Schindler, R.H. Hesslein & D.C.G. Muir. 1998. Effects of trophic position and lipid on organochlorine concentrations in fishes from subarctic lakes in Yukon Territory. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 55: 869-881.
58. Kitching, R. L. 1987. Spatial and temporal variation in food webs in water-filled treeholes. Oikos 48: 280-288.
59. Kitching, R.L. 2000. Food Webs and Container Habitats. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.
60. Kitching, R.L. 2001. Food webs in phytotelmata: "bottom-up" and "top-down" explanations for community structure. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 46: 729-760.
61. Lamberti, G.A. & D. Steinman. 1997. A comparison of primary production in stream ecosystems. J. N. Am. Benthol. Soc. 16: 95-104.
62. Lande, R. 1993. Risks of population extinction from demographic and environmental stochasticity and random catastrophes. Am. Nat. 142: 911-927.
63. Laska, M.S. & J.T. Wootton. 1998. Theoretical concepts and empirical approaches to measuring interaction strength. Ecology 79: 461-476.
64. Leopold, L.B., M.G. Wolman & J.P. Miller. 1992. Fluvial Processes in Geomorphology. General Publishing Company, Ltd. Toronto, Canada.
65. Lepak, J.M., C.E. Kraft & B.C. Weldel. 2006. Rapid food web recovery in response to removal of an introduced apex predator. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 63: 569-575.
66. Lindeman, R. 1942. The trophic-dynamic aspect of ecology. Ecology 23: 399-418.
67. Lytle, D.A. & N.L. Poff. 2004. Adaptation to natural flow regimes. Trends Ecol. Evol. 19: 94-100.
68. Magnuson, J.J., D.M. Robertson, B.J. Benson, et al. 2000. Historical trends in lake and river ice cover in the Northern Hemisphere. Science 289: 1743-1746.
69. Marks, J.C., M.E. Power & M.S. Parker. 2000. Flood disturbance, algal productivity, and interannual variation in food chain length. Oikos 90: 20-27.
70. McCann, K., A. Hastings & G.R. Huxel. 1998a. Weak trophic interactions and the balance of nature. Nature 39 5: 794-798.
71. McCann, K.S., A. Hastings & D.R. Strong. 1998b. Trophic cascades and trophic trickles in pelagic food webs. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. BBiol. Sci. 265: 205-209.
72. Menge, B.A. 1976. Organization of New-England rocky intertidal community - Role of predation, competition, and environmental heterogeneity. Ecol. Monogr. 46: 355-393.
73. Menge, B.A. 1995. Indirect effects in marine rocky intertidal interaction webs - Patterns and importance. Ecol. Monogr. 65: 21-74.
74. Menge, B.A. & J.P. Sutherland. 1976. Species-diversity gradients - Synthesis of roles of predation, competition, and temporal heterogeneity. Am. Nat. 110: 351-369.
75. Menge, B.A. & J.P. Sutherland. 1987. Community regulation - Variation in disturbance, competition, and predation in relation to environmental-stress and recruitment. Am. Nat. 130: 730-757.
76. Moore, J.C., P.C. Deruiter & H.W. Hunt. 1993. Influence of productivity on the stability of real and model-ecosystems. Science 261: 906-908.
77. Neutel, A.M., J.A.P. Heesterbeek & P.C. de Ruiter. 2002. Stability in real food webs: weak links in long loops. Science 296: 1120-1123.
78. Oksanen, L., S.D. Fretwell, J. Arruda & P. Niemela. 1981. Exploitation ecosystems in gradients of primary productivity. Am. Nat. 118: 240-261.
79. Oksanen, L. & T. Oksanen. 2000. The logic and realism of the hypothesis of exploitation ecosystems. Am. Nat. 155: 703-723.
80. Oliver, J.D., G.F. Holeton & K.E. Chua. 1979. Overwinter mortality of fingerling smallmouth bass in relation to size, relative energy stores, and environmentaltemperature. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 108: 130-136.
81. Pace, M.L., J.J. Cole, S.R. Carpenter & J.F. Kitchell. 1999. Trophic cascades revealed in diverse ecosystems. Trends Ecol. Evol. 14: 483-488.
82. Paine, R.T. 1980. Food webs: linkage, interaction strength and community infrastructure. J. Animal Ecol. 49: 667-685.
83. Parker, S.M. & A.D. Huryn. 2006. Food web structure and function in two arctic streams with contrasting disturbance regimes. Oikos 51: 1249-1263.
84. Pauly, D., V. Christensen, J. Dalsgaard, et al. 1998. Fishing down marine food webs. Science 279: 860.
85. Pauly, D., M.L. Palomares, R. Froese, et al. 2001. Fishing down Canadian aquatic food webs. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 58: 51-62.
86. Persson, L. 1999. Trophic cascades: abiding heterogeneity and the trophic level concept at the end of the road. Oikos 85: 385-397.
87. Persson, L., S. Diehl, L. Johansson, et al. 1992. Trophic interactions in temperate lake ecosystems - A test of food-chain theory. Am. Nat. 140: 59-84.
88. Peterson, B.J. & B. Fry. 1987. Stable isotopes in ecosystem studies. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 18: 293-320.
89. Phillips, J.M., J.R. Jackson & R.L. Noble. 1995. Hatching date influence on age-specific diet and growth of age-0 largemouth bass. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 124: 370-379.
90. Pickup, G. & R.F. Warner. 1976. Effects of hydrologic regime on magnitude and frequency of dominant discharge. J. Hydrol. 29: 51-75.
91. Pimm, S.L. 1982. Food Webs. Chapman & Hall. London.
92. Pimm, S.L. & R.L. Kitching. 1987. The determinants of food chain lengths. Oikos 50: 302-307.
93. Pimm, S.L. & J.H. Lawton. 1977. The number of trophic levels in ecological communities. Nature 275: 542-544.
94. Polis, G.A. 1991. Complex trophic interactions in deserts - an empirical critique of food-web theory. American Naturalist 138: 123-155.
95. Polis, G.A. 1994. Food webs, trophic cascades and community structure. Austral. J. Ecol. 19: 121-136.
96. Polis, G.A. 1999. Why are parts of the world green? Mul- tiple factors control productivity and the distribution of biomass. Oikos 86: 3-15.
97. Polis, G.A. & R.D. Holt. 1992. Intraguild predation - the dynamics of complex trophic interactions. Trends Ecol. Evol. 7: 151-154.
98. Polis, G.A. & D.R. Strong. 1996. Food web complexity and community dynamics. American Naturalist 147: 813-846.
99. Post, D.M. 2002a. The long and short of food-chain length. Trends Ecol. Evol. 17: 269-277.
100. Post, D.M. 2002b. Using stable isotopes to estimate trophic position: Models, methods, and assumptions. Ecology 83: 703-718.
101. Post, D.M. 2007. Testing the productive space hypothesis: rational and power. Oecologia 15 3: 973-984.
102. Post, D.M., S.R. Carpenter, D.L. Christensen, et al. 1997. Seasonal effects of variable recruitment of a dominant piscivore on pelagic food web structure. Limnology and Oceanography 42: 722-729.
103. Post, D.M., M.E. Conners & D.S. Goldberg. 2000a. Prey preference by a top predator and the stability of linked food chains. Ecology 81: 8-14.
104. Post, D.M., M.W. Doyle, J.L. Sabo & J.C. Finlay. 2007. The problem of boundaries in defining ecosystems: a potential landmine for uniting geomorphology and ecology. Geomorphology 89: 111-126.
105. Post, D.M., M.L. Pace & N.G. Hairston. 2000b. Ecosystem size determines food-chain length in lakes. Nature 405: 1047-1049.
106. Post, D.M. & G. Takimoto. 2007. Proximate structural mechanisms for variation in food-chain length. Oikos 116: 775-782.
107. Power, M.E. 1984. Depth distributions of armored catfish - Predator-induced resource avoidance. Ecology 65: 523-528.
108. Power, M.E. 1990. Effects of fish in river food webs. Science 250: 811-814.
109. Power, M.E., J.C. Marks & M.S. Parker. 1992. Variation in the vulnerability of prey to different predators - Community-level consequences. Ecology 73: 2218-2223.
110. Power, M.E., W.J. Matthews & A.J. Stewart. 1985. Grazing minnows, piscivorous bass, and stream algae - Dynamics of a strong interaction. Ecology 66: 1448-1456.
111. Power, M.E., M.S. Parker & W.E. Dietrich. 2008. Seasonal reassembly of a river food web: floods, droughts, and impacts of fish. Ecol. Monogr. 78: 263-282.
112. Power, M.E., M.S. Parker & J.T. Wootton. 1996. Disturbance and food chain length in rivers. In Food Webs: Integration of Pattern and Dynamics.G.A. Polis & K.O. Winemiller, Eds.: 286-297. Chapman & Hall. New Yo r k .
113. Power, M.E. & W.E. Rainey. 2000. Food webs and resource sheds: towards spatially delimiting trophic interactions. In Ecological Consequences of Habitat Heterogeneity. M.J. Hutchings, E.A. John & A.J.A. Stewart, Eds.: 291-314. Blackwell Scientific. Oxford, UK.
114. Rasmussen, J.B., D.J. Rowan, D.R.S. Lean & J.H. Carey. 1990. Food-chain structure in Ontario lakes determines PCB levels in lake trout (Salvelinus-Namaycush) and other pelagic fish. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47: 2030-2038.
115. Rasmussen, J.B. & J.M. Vander Zanden. 2004. The variation of lake food webs across the landscape and its effect on contaminant dynamics. In Food Webs at the Landscape Scale. G.A. Polis, M.E. Power & G.R. Huxel, Eds.: 169-182. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.
116. Riggs, H.C. 1972. Low-Flow Investigations: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations. Available at http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/usgspubs/twri/ twri04B1.
117. Rosenzweig, M.L. & R.H. Macarthur. 1963. Graphical representation and stability conditions of predator-prey interactions. Am. Nat. 97: 209-223.
118. Sabo, J.L. & D.M. Post. 2008. Quantifying periodic, stochastic, and catastrophic environmental variation. Ecol. Monogr. 78: 19-40.
119. Sabo, J.L. & M.E. Power. 2002. Numerical response of lizards to aquatic insects and short-term consequences for terrestrial prey. Ecology 83: 3023-3036.
120. Saunders, P.T. 1978. Population dynamics and the length of food chains. Nature 272: 189-190.
121. Scheffer, M., S.H. Hosper, M.M.L., M.B. & E. Jeppesen. 1993. Alternate equilibria in shallow lakes. TREE 8: 275-279.
122. Schindler, D.E., S.R. Carpenter, J.J. Cole, et al. 1997. Influence of food web structure on carbon exchange between lakes and the atmosphere. Science 277: 248-251.
123. Schmidl, J., P. Sulzer & R.L. Kitching. 2008. The insect assemblage in water filled tree-holes in a European temperate deciduous forest: community composition reflects structural, trophic and physicochemical factors. Hydrobiologia 598: 285-303.
124. Schmitz, O.J., P.A. Hamback & A.P. Beckerman. 2000. Trophic cascades in terrestrial systems: a review of the effects of carnivore removals on plants. Am. Nat. 155: 141-153.
125. Schneider, D.W. 1997. Predation and food web structure along a habitat duration gradient. Oecologia 110: 567-575.
126. Schneider, D.W. & T.M. Frost. 1996. Habitat duration and community structure in temporary ponds. J N. Am. Benthol. Soc. 15: 64-86.
127. Schoener, T.W. 1989. Food webs from the small to the large. Ecology 70: 1559-1589.
128. Sharma, C.M., R. Borgstrom, J.S. Huitfeldt & B.O. Rosse-land. 2008. Selective exploitation of large pike Esox lucius - Effects on mercury concentrations in fish populations. Sci. Total Environ. 399: 33-40.
129. Sinclair, A.R.E., C.J. Krebs, J.M. Fryxell, et al. 2000. Testing hypotheses of trophic level interactions: a boreal forest ecosystem. Oikos 89: 313-328.
130. Smith, D.C. 1983. Factors controlling tadpole populations of the chorus frog (Pseudacris-Triseriata) on Isle Royale, Michigan. Ecology 64: 501-510.
131. Sousa, W.P. 1984. The role of disturbance in natural communities. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 15: 353-391.
132. Spencer, M., L. Blaustein & J.E. Cohen. 2002. Oviposition habitat selection by mosquitoes (Culiseta longia-reolata) and consequences for population size. Ecology 83: 669-679.
133. Spencer, M., L. Blaustein, S. S. Schwartz, and J. E. Cohen. 1999. Species richness and the proportion of predatory animal species in temporary freshwater pools: relationships with habitat size and permanence. Ecology Letters 2: 157-166.
134. Spencer, M. & P.H. Warren. 1996a. The effects of habitat size and productivity on food web structure in small aquatic microcosms. Oikos 75: 419-430.
135. Spencer, M., and P.H. Warren. 1996b. The effects of habitat size and productivity on food web structure in small aquatic microcosms. Oikos 75: 419-430.
136. Stenroth, P., N. Holmqvist, P. Nystrom, et al. 2008. The influence of productivity and width of littoral zone on the trophic position of a large-bodied omnivore. Oecologia 156: 681-690.
137. Sterner, R.W., A. Bajpai & T. Adams. 1997. The enigma of food chain length: absence of theoretical evidence for dynamic constraints. Ecology 78: 2258-2262.
138. Strong, D.R. 1992. Are trophic cascades all wet - Differentiation and donor-control in speciose ecosystems. Ecology 73: 747-754.
139. Swanson, H.K., T.A. Johnston, W.C. Leggett, et al. 2003. Trophic positions and mercury bioaccumulation in rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax) and native forage fishes in northwestern Ontario lakes. Ecosystems 6: 289-299.
140. Thompson, R.M. & C.R. Townsend. 2005. Energy availability, spatial heterogeneity and ecosystem size predict food-web structure in streams. Oikos 108: 137-148.
141. Tonn, W.M. & J.J. Magnuson. 1982. Patterns in the species composition and richness of fish assemblages in northern Wisconsin lakes. Ecology 63: 1149-1166.
142. Townsend, C.R., S. Doledec & M.R. Scarsbrook. 1997. Species traits in relation to temporal and spatial heterogeneity in streams: a test of habitat templet theory. Freshwater Biol. 37: 367-387.
143. Townsend, C.R., R.M. Thompson, A.R. McIntosh, et al. 1998. Disturbance, resource supply, and food-web architecture in streams. Ecol. Lett. 1: 200-209.
144. Trexler, J.C., W.F. Loftus & S. Perry. 2005. Disturbance frequency and community structure in a twenty-five year intervention study. Oecologia 145: 140-152.
145. Vander Zanden, J.M., B.J. Shuter, N. Lester & J.B. Rasmussen. 1999a. Patterns of food chain length in lakes: a stable isotope study. Am. Nat. 154: 406-416.
146. 15N) and literature dietary data. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 54: 1142-1158.
147. Vander Zanden, M.J., J.M. Casselman & J.B. Rasmussen. 1999b. Stable isotope evidence for the food web consequences of species invasions in lakes. Nature 401: 464-467.
148. Vander Zanden, M.J. & W.W. Fetzer. 2007. Global patterns of aquatic food chain length. Oikos 116: 1378-1388.
149. Vander Zanden, M.J. & J.B. Rasmussen. 1996. A trophic position model of pelagic food webs: impact on contaminant bioaccumulation in lake trout. Ecol. Monogr. 66: 451-477.
150. 15N and the trophic position of aquatic consumers. Ecology 80: 1395-1404.
151. Vannote, R.L., G.W. Minshall, K.W. Cummins, et al. 1980. River Continuum Concept. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37: 130-137.
152. Wallace, J.B., S.L. Eggert, J.L. Meyer & J.R. Webster. 1997. Multiple trophic levels of a forest stream linked to terrestrial litter inputs. Science 277: 102-104.
153. Wallace, J.B., S.L. Eggert, J.L. Meyer & J.R. Webster. 1999. Effects of resource limitation on a detritalbased ecosystem. Ecol. Monogr. 69: 409-442.
154. Walters, A.W. & D.M. Post. 2008. An experimental disturbance alters fish size-structure, but not food-chain length in streams. Ecology 898: 3261-3267.
155. Warren, P.H. 1990. Variation in food-web structure - The determinants of connectance. Am. Nat. 136: 689-700.
156. Warren, P. H. & M. Spencer. 1996. Community and food-web responses to the manipulation of energy input and disturbance in small ponds. Oikos 75: 407-418.
157. Williams, A.J. & J.C. Trexler. 2006. A preliminary analysis of the correlation of food-web characteristics with hydrology and nutrient gradients in the southern Everglades. Hydrobiologia 569: 493-504.
158. Williams, R.J. & N.D. Martinez. 2000. Simple rules yield complex food webs. Nature 404: 180-183.
159. Winemiller, K.O. 1989. Must connectance decrease with species richness. Am. Nat. 134: 960-968.
160. Winemiller, K.O. 1990. Spatial and temporal variation in tropical fish trophic networks. Ecol. Monogr. 60: 331-367.
161. Wootton, J.T., M.S. Parker & M.E. Power. 1996. Effects of disturbance on river food webs. Science 273: 1558- 1561.
162. Wootton, J.T. & M.E. Power. 1993. Productivity, consumers, and the structure of a river food-chain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. SA 90: 1384-1387.
163. Yodzis, P. 1984. Energy flow and the vertical structure of real ecosystems. Oecologia 65: 86-88.