Trophic cascades in terrestrial systems: A review of the effects of carnivore removals on plants

American Naturalist

Volumn 155, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 141-153

  Schmitz, Oswald J ^a,b   Hambäck, Peter A ^a   Beckerman, Andrew P ^a  

^a Yale University   (United States)

^b YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Direct effects; Food web; Herbivory; Indirect effects; Meta analysis; Trophic cascade

Indexed keywords

CARNIVORE; ECOSYSTEM; HERBIVORE; LITERATURE REVIEW; PLANT; TROPHIC CASCADE;

EID: 0034072299     PISSN: 00030147     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/303311     Document Type: Article

References (71)

1. Atlegrim, O. 1989. Exclusion of birds from bilberry stands: impact on insect larval density and damage to bilberry. Oecologia (Berlin) 79:136-139.
2. Barton, A. M. 1986. Spatial variation in the effect of ants on an extrafloral nectary plant. Ecology 67:495-504.
3. Beckerman, A. P., M. Uriarte, and O. J. Schmitz. 1997. Experimental evidence for a behavior-mediated trophic cascade in a terrestrial food chain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 94: 10735-10738.
4. Bock, C. E., J. H. Bock, and M. C. Grant. 1992. Effects of bird predation on grasshopper densities in an Arizona grassland. Ecology 73:1706-1717.
5. Boutin, S. 1992. Predation and moose population dynamics: a critique. Journal of Wildlife Management 56: 116-127.
6. Brett, M. T., and C. R. Goldman. 1996. A meta-analysis of the freshwater trophic cascade. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 93: 7723-7726.
7. Chase, J. 1996. Abiotic controls of trophic cascades in a simple grassland food chain. Oikos 77:495-506.
8. -. 1998. Central place forager effects on food chain dynamics and spatial pattern in Northern California meadows. Ecology 79:1236-1245.
9. Cohen, J. E., R. A. Beaver, S. H. Cousins, D. L. DeAngelis, L. Goldwasser, K. L. Heong, R. D. Holt, et al. 1993. Improving food webs. Ecology 72:252-258.
10. Devall, M. S., and L. B. Thien. 1989. Factors influencing the reproductive success of Ipomoea-pes-caprae (Convolvulaceae) around the Gulf of Mexico. American Journal of Botany 76:1821-1831.
11. Dial, R., and J. Roughgarden. 1995. Experimental removal of insectivores from rain forest canopy: direct and indirect effects. Ecology 76:1821-1834.
12. Floate, K. D., and T. G. Whitham. 1994. Aphid-ant interaction reduces chrysomelid herbivory in a cottonwood hybrid zone. Oecologia (Berlin) 97:215-221.
13. Fonseca, C. R. 1994. Herbivory and the long-lived leaves of an Amazonian ant-tree. Journal of Ecology 82: 833-842.
14. Fraser, L. H., and J. P. Grime. 1998. Top-down control and its effect on biomass and composition of three grasses at high and low soil fertility in outdoor mesocosms. Oecologia (Berlin) 113:239-246.
15. Fretwell, S. D. 1987. Food chain dynamics: the central theory of ecology? Oikos 50:291-301.
16. Gaume, L., D. McKey, and M.-C. Anstett. 1997. Benefits conferred by "timid" ants: active antiherbivore protection of the rainforest tree Leonardoxa africana by the minute ant Petalomyrmex phylax. Oecologia (Berlin) 112:209-216.
17. Gilreath, M. E., and J. W. Smith. 1988. Natural enemies of Dactylopius confusus (Homoptera: Dactylopiidae): exclusion and subsequent impact on Opuntia (Cactaceae). Environmental Entomology 17:730-738.
18. Gomez, J. M., and R. Zamora. 1994. Top-down effects in a tritrophic system: parasitoids enhance plant fitness. Ecology 75:1023-1030.
19. Gurevitch, J., and L. V. Hedges. 1993. Meta-analysis: combining the results of independent experiments. Pages 378-398 in S. M. Scheiner and J. Gurevitch, eds. Design and analysis of ecological experiments. Chapman & Hall, New York.
20. Gurevitch, J., L. L. Morrow, A. Wallace, and J. S. Walsh. 1992. A meta-analysis of competition in field experiments. American Naturalist 140:539-572.
21. Gutiérrez, J. R., P. L. Meserve, S. Herrera, L. C. Contreras, and F. M. Jaksic. 1997. Effects of small mammals and vertebrate predators on vegetation in the Chilean semiarid zone. Oecologia (Berlin) 109:398-406.
22. Hairston, N. G., F. E. Smith, and L. B. Slobodkin. 1960. Community structure, population control, and competition. American Naturalist 94:421-425.
23. Hambäck, P. A., J. Ågren, and L. Ericson. 2000. Associational resistance: insect damage to purple loosestrife reduced in thickets of sweet gale. Ecology (in press).
24. Hedges, L. V., J. Gurevitch, and P. Curtis. 1999. The meta-analysis of response ratios in experimental ecology. Ecology 80:1150-1156.
25. Horvitz, C. C., and D. W. Schemske. 1984. Effects of ants and an ant-tended herbivore on seed production of a neotropical herb. Ecology 65:1369-1378.
26. Huntly, N. J. 1991. Herbivores and the dynamics of communities and ecosystems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 22:477-503.
27. Inouye, D. W., and O. R. Taylor. 1979. A temperate region plant-ant-seed predator system: consequences of extra floral nectar secretion by Hellianthella quinquenervis. Ecology 60:1-7.
28. Koptur, S. 1984. Experimental evidence for defense of Inga (Mimosioideae) saplings by ants. Ecology 65:1787-1793.
29. Laine, K. J., and P. Niemelä. 1980. The influence of ants on the survival of mountain birches during an Oporinia autumnata (Lep. Geometridae) outbreak. Oecologia (Berlin) 47:39-42.
30. Letourneau, D. 1998. Ants, stem borers, and fungal pathogens: experimental tests of fitness advantage in Piper ant-plants. Ecology 79:593-603.
31. Letourneau, D., and L. A. Dyer. 1998. Experimental test in lowland tropical forest shows top-down effects through for trophic levels. Ecology 79:1678-1687.
32. Letourneau, D. K., F. Arias, and M. Jebb. 1993. Coping with enemy-filled space: herbivores on Endospermum in Papua-New Guinea. Biotropica 25:95-99.
33. Louda, S. M. 1982. Inflorescence spiders: a cost/benefit analysis for the host plant, Haplopappus venetus Blake (Asteraceae). Oecologia (Berlin) 55:185-191.
34. Mackay, D. A. 1991. The effects of ants on herbivory and herbivore numbers on foliage of mallee eucalypt, Eucalyptus incrassata Labill. Australian Journal of Ecology 16:471-483.
35. Marquis, R. J., and C. J. Whelan. 1994. Insectivorous birds increase growth of white oak through consumption of leaf-chewing insects. Ecology 75:2007-2014.
36. McLaren B. E., and R. O. Peterson. 1994. Wolves, moose and tree rings on Isle Royale. Science (Washington, D.C.) 266:1555-1558.
37. Menge, B. A. 1995. Indirect effects in marine rocky intertidal interaction webs: patterns and importance. Ecological Monographs 65:21-74.
38. -. 1997. Detection of direct versus indirect effects: were experiments long enough? American Naturalist 149:801-823.
39. Messier, F. 1995. Trophic interactions in two northern wolf-ungulate systems. Wildlife Research 22:131-146.
40. Messina, F. J. 1981. Plant protection as a consequence of an ant-membracid mutualism: interactions on goldenrod (Solidago sp.). Ecology 62:1433-1440.
41. Moog, J., T. Drude, and U. Maschwitz. 1998. Protective function of the plant-ant Cladomyrma maschwitzi to its host, Crypteronia griffithii, and the dissolution of the mutualism (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Sociobiology 31:105-112.
42. Moran, M. D., and L. E. Hurd. 1998. A trophic cascade in a diverse arthropod community caused by a generalist arthropod predator. Oecologia (Berlin) 113:126-132.
43. Moran, M. D., T. P. Rooney, and L. E. Hurd. 1996. Top-down cascade from a bitrophic predator in an old-field community. Ecology 77:2219-2227.
44. Oksanen, L., and T. Oksanen. 1992. Long-term microtine dynamics in north Fennoscandian tundra: the vole life-cycle and the lemming chaos. Ecography 15:226-236.
45. Oksanen, L., S. D. Fretwell, J. Arruda, and P. Niemelä. 1981. Exploitation ecosystems in gradients of primary productivity. American Naturalist 118:240-261.
46. Olff, H., and M. E. Ritchie. 1998. Effects of herbivores on grassland plant diversity. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 13:261-265.
47. Oliveira, P. S. 1997. The ecological function of extrafloral nectaries: herbivore deterrence by visiting ants and reproductive output in Caryocar brasiliense (Caryocaraceae). Functional Ecology 11:323-330.
48. Osenberg, C. W., O. Sarnelle, and S. D. Cooper. 1997. Effect size in ecological experiments: the application of biological models in meta-analysis. American Naturalist 150:798-812.
49. Paine, R. T. 1980. Food webs: linkage, interaction strength, and community infrastructure. Journal of Animal Ecology 49:667-685.
50. Polis, G. A. 1999. Why are parts of the world green? multiple factors control productivity and the distribution of biomass. Oikos 86:3-15.
51. Polis, G. A., and S. D. Hurd. 1996. Allochthonous input across habitats, subsidized consumers and apparent trophic cascades: examples from the ocean-land interface. Pages 275-285 in G. Polis and K. Winemiller, eds. Food webs: integration of patterns and dynamics. Chapman & Hall, New York.
52. Polis, G. A., and D. R. Strong. 1996. Food web complexity and community dynamics. American Naturalist 147: 813-846.
53. Rosenberg, M. S., D. C. Adams, and J. Gurevitch. 1997. MetaWin: statistical software for meta-analysis with resampling tests. Version 1.0. Sinauer, Sunderland, Mass.
54. Schemske, D. W. 1980. The evolutionary significance of extrafloral nectar production by Costus woodsonii (Zingiberaceae): an experimental analysis of ant protection. Journal of Ecology 68:959-967.
55. Schmitz, O. J. 1992. Exploitation in model food webs with mechanistic consumer-resource dynamics. Theoretical Population Biology 41:161-183.
56. -. 1993. Trophic exploitation in grassland food webs: simple models and a field experiment. Oecologia (Berlin) 93:327-335.
57. -. 1994. Resource edibility and trophic exploitation in an old-field food web. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 91:5364-5367.
58. -. 1998. Direct and indirect effects of predation and predation risk in old field interaction webs. American Naturalist 151:327-342.
59. Schmitz, O. J., A. P. Beckerman, and K. M. O'Brien. 1997. Behaviorally-mediated trophic cascades: the effects of predation risk on food web interactions. Ecology 78: 1388-1399.
60. Schoener, T. W. 1993. On the relative importance of direct vs. indirect effects in ecological communities. Pages 365-411 in H. Kawanabe, J. E. Cohen, and K. Iwasaki, eds. Mutualism and community organization: behavioral, theoretical, and food-web approaches. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
61. Sih, A., P. Crowley, M. McPeek, J. Petranka, and K. Strohmeier. 1985. Predation, competition and prey communities: a review of field experiments. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 16:269-311.
62. Sinclair, A. R. E., and P. Arcese. 1995. Serengeti II: dynamics, management and conservation of an ecosystem. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
63. Sokal, R. R., and F. J. Rohlf. 1998. Biometry. 3d ed. W. H. Freeman, New York.
64. Spiller, D. A., and T. W. Schoener. 1996. Food web dynamics on some small subtropical islands: effects of top and intermediate predators. Pages 365-411 in G. Polis and K. Winemiller, eds. Food webs: integration of patterns and dynamics. Chapman & Hall, New York.
65. Stephenson, A. G. 1982. The role of extrafloral nectaries of Catalpa speciosa in limiting herbivory and increasing fruit production. Ecology 63:663-669.
66. Strong, D. R. 1992. Are trophic cascades all wet? Differentiation and donor control in speciose ecosystems. Ecology 73:747-754.
67. Vasconcelos, H. L. 1991. Mutualism between Maieta guianensis Aubl., a myrmencophytic melastome, and one of its ant inhabitants: ant protection against insect herbivores. Oecologia (Berlin) 87:295-298.
68. Vasconcelos, H. L., and A. B. Casimiro. 1997. Influence of Azteca alfari ants on the exploitation of Cecropia trees by a leaf-cutting ant. Biotropica 29:84-92.
69. Warrington, S., and J. B. Whittaker. 1985. An experimental field study of different levels of insect herbivory induced by Formica rufa predation on sycamore (Acer pseudoplatamus). I. Lepidoptera larvae. Journal of Applied Ecology 22:775-785.
70. Whalen, M. A., and D. A. Mackay. 1988. Patterns of ant and herbivore activity on five understory Euphorbiaceaous saplings in submontane Papua New Guinea. Biotropica 20:294-300.
71. Wootton, J. T. 1997. Estimates and tests of per capita interaction strength: diet, abundance, and impact of intertidally foraging birds. Ecological Monographs 67: 45-64.