Pediatric immune dysfunction and health risks following early-life immune insult

Current Pediatric Reviews

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 36-51

  Dietert, Rodney R ^a   Zelikoff, Judith T ^b  

^a Department of Obstetrics Gynecology   (United States)

^b NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Childhood illness; Co morbidity; Developmental Immunotoxicity; Immune dysfunction; Pediatric health

Indexed keywords

ANALGESIC AGENT; DIPHTHERIA PERTUSSIS TETANUS VACCINE;

ACUTE LYMPHOBLASTIC LEUKEMIA; ALLERGIC DISEASE; ALLERGIC RHINITIS; ASTHMA; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; ATOPIC DERMATITIS; AUTISM; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; AUTOIMMUNE THYROIDITIS; BREAST CANCER; CELIAC DISEASE; CHILD; CHILD HEALTH CARE; CHILDHOOD DISEASE; CHILDHOOD LEUKEMIA; CHRONIC DISEASE; CHRONIC FATIGUE SYNDROME; CHRONIC LYMPHATIC LEUKEMIA; CHRONIC OTITIS MEDIA; COMORBIDITY; DIPHTHERIA; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; EARLY LIFE STRESS; ENTERITIS; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; FOOD ALLERGY; HEALTH CARE MANAGEMENT; HEALTH HAZARD; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOMODULATION; IMMUNOPATHOLOGY; IMMUNOREGULATION; IMMUNOTOXICITY; INFECTION; INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; LONG TERM CARE; MUCOCUTANEOUS LYMPH NODE SYNDROME; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; NEWBORN CARE; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; PERINATAL PERIOD; PERTUSSIS; PRENATAL CARE; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOTRAUMA; REVIEW; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SEXUAL ABUSE; SLEEP DISORDER; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; TETANUS; VACCINATION;

EID: 65949118042     PISSN: 15733963     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/157339609787587591     Document Type: Review

References (243)

1. World Health Organization. Principles and methods for assessing autoimmunity associated with exposure to chemicals. Environmental Health Criteria Document 236: Geneva 2006; p. 333.
2. Moorman JE, Rudd RA, Johnson CA, et al. National Surveillance for Asthma - United States, 1980-2004. U.S. Centers for Disease Control MMRW. Surveil Sum 2007; 56(SS08); 1-14: 18-54.
3. Myers M, Zimmet P. Halting the accelerating epidemic of type 1 diabetes. Lancet 2008; 371(9626): 1730-31.
4. DeAngelis CD, Zylke JW. Theme issue on chronic diseases in infants, children, and young adults: Call for papers. JAMA 2006; 296: 1780.
5. Shurin MR, Smolkin YS. Immune-mediated diseases: where do we stand? Adv Exp Biol Med 2007; 601: 3-12.
6. Thornton J, Lunt M, Ashcroft DM, et al. Costing juvenile idiopathic arthritis: examining patient-based costs during the first year after diagnosis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2008; 47: 985-90.
7. Dietert RR. Developmental immunotoxicity testing and protection of children's health. PLoS Med 2006; 3: e296.
8. Dietert RR. Developmental immunotoxicology: focus on health risks. Chem Res Toxicol 2009; 22: 17-23.
9. Guedes HT, Souza LS. Exposure to maternal smoking in the first year of life interferes in breast-feeding protective effect against the onset of respiratory allergy from birth to 5 yr. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2009; 20(1):30-4.
10. Wang L, Pinkerton KE. Detrimental effects of tobacco smoke exposure during development on postnatal lung function and asthma. Birth Def Res C Embryo Today 2008; 84: 54-60.
11. Pistiner M, Gold DR, Abdulkerim H, Hoffman E, Celedon C. Birth by cesarean section, allergic rhinitis, and allergic sensitization among children with a parental history of atopy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008; 122: 274-9.
12. Dong GH, Ma YN, Ding HL, et al. Effects of housing characteristics and home environmental factors on respiratory symptoms of 10,784 elementary school children from northeast China. Respiration 2008; 76: 82-91.
13. Fedulov AV, Leme A, Yang Z, et al. Pulmonary exposure to particles during pregnancy causes increased neonatal asthma susceptibility. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2008; 38: 57-67.
14. Nordling E, Berglind N, Melen E, et al. Traffic-related air pollution and childhood respiratory symptoms, function and allergies. Epidemiology 2008; 19: 401-8.
15. McDonald KL, Huq SI, Lix LM, Becjer AB, Korzyrskyi AL. Delay in diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus vaccination is associated with a reduced risk of childhood asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008; 121: 626-31.
16. Weng X, Liu L, Barcellos LF, Allison JE, Herrinton LJ. Clustering of inflammatory bowel disease with immune mediated diseases among members of a northern California-managed care organization. Am J Gastroenterol 2008; 102: 1429-35.
17. Ekstom Smedby K, Vajdic CM, Falster M, et al. Autoimmune disorders and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma subtypes: a pooled analysis within the InterLymph Consortium. Blood 2008; 111: 4029-38.
18. Hughes AM, Lightfoot T, Simpson J, et al. Allergy and risk of childhood leukaemia: results from the UKCCS. Int J Cancer 2007; 121: 819-24.
19. Kim YK, Lee SW, Kim SH, et al. Differences in cytokines between non-suicidal patients and suicidal patients in major depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmcol Biol Psychiatry 2008; 32: 356-61.
20. Rier SE. Environmental immune disruption: a comorbidity factor for reproduction? Fert Steril 2008; 89(2 Suppl): e103-8.
21. Dietert RR, Zelikoff JT. Early-life environment, developmental immunotoxicology, and the risk of pediatric allergic disease including asthma. Birth Def Res B 2008; 83: 547-60.
22. Dietert RR. Developmental immunotoxicity (DIT) in drug safety testing: matching DIT testing to adverse outcomes and childhood disease risk. Curr Drug Saf 2008; 3: 216-26.
23. Dietert RR, Dietert JM. Potential for early life immune insult including developmental immunotoxicity in autism and autism spectrum disorders: Focus on critical windows of immune vulnerabilty. J Toxicol Environ Health Part B Crit Rev 2008; 11: 660-80.
24. Dietert RR, Piepenbrink MS. The managed immune system: protecting the womb to delay the tomb. Hum Exp Toxicol 2008; 27:129-34.
25. Dietert RR, Piepenbrink MS. Perinatal immunotoxicity: why adult exposure assessment fails to predict risk. Environ Health Perspect 2006; 114: 477-83.
26. Luster MI, Dietert RR, Germolec DR, Luebke RW, Makris SL. Developmental immunotoxicology. In Sonawane B, Brown, R. editors. Encyclopedia of environmental health. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd. 2008.
27. Luebke RW, Chen DH, Dietert R, et al. The comparative immunotoxicity of five selected compounds following developmental or adult exposure. J Toxicol Environ Health B 2006; 9: 1-26.
28. Gerhs BC, Riddle MM, Williams WC, Smialowicz RJ. Alterations in the developing immune system of the F344 rat after perinatal exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin: II. Effects on the pup and the adult. Toxicology 1997; 122: 229-40.
29. Voderstrasse BA, Cundiff JA, Lawrence BP. A dose-response studies of the effects of prenatal and lactational exposure to TCDD on the immune response to influenza a virus. J Toxicol Env Health A 2006; 69: 445-63.
30. Hogaboam JP, Moore AJ, Lawrence BP. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor affects distinct tissue compartments during ontogeny of the immune system. Toxicol Sci 2008; 102: 160-70.
31. Mustafa A, Holladay SD, Goff M, et al. An enhanced postnatal autoimmune profile in 24 week-old C57BL/6 mice developmentally exposed to TCDD. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2008; 232: 51-9.
32. Veldhoen M, Hirota K, Westendorf AM, et al. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor links TH17-cell-mediated autoimmunity to environmental toxins. Nature 2008; 453: 106-9.
33. Greenberg D, Givon-Lavi N, Broides A, Blancovich I, Peled N, Dagan R. The contribution of smoking and exposure to tobacco smoke to Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae carriage in children and their mothers. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42: 897-903.
34. Haberg SE, Stigum N, Nystad W, Nafstad P. Effects of pre- and postnatal exposure to parental smoking on early childhood respiratory health. Am J Epidemiol 2007; 166: 679-86.
35. Ng SP. Silverstone AE, Lai ZW, Zelikoff JT. Effects of prenatal exposure to cigarette smoke on offspring tumor susceptibility and associated immune mechanisms. Toxicol Sci 2006; 89: 135-44.
36. Ng SP, Zelikoff JT. The effects of prenatal exposure of mice to cigarette smoke on offspring immune parameters. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2008; 71: 445-53.
37. Jaakola JJ, Gissler M. Are girls more susceptible to the effects of prenatal exposure to tobacco smoke on asthma? Epidemiology 2007; 18: 573-6.
38. Rouse RL, Bordreaux MJ, Penn, AL. In utero environmental tobacco smoke exposure alters gene expression in lungs of adult BALB/c mice. Environ Health Perspect 2007; 115: 1757-66.
39. Noakes PS, Hale J, Thomas R, Lane C, Devadson SG, Prescott SL. Maternal smoking is associated with impaired neonatal toll-likereceptor-mediated immune responses. Eur Respir J 2006; 28: 721-9.
40. Yeatts K. Sly P, Shore S, et al. A brief targeted review of susceptibility factors, environmental exposures, asthma incidence, and recommendations for future asthma incidence research. Environ Health Perspect 2006; 114: 634-40.
41. Ng SP, Zelikoff JT. Smoking during pregnancy: subsequent effects on offspring immune competence and disease vulnerability in later life. Reprod Toxicol 2007; 23: 428-37.
42. Faith RE, Luster MI, Kimmel CA. Effect of chronic developmental lead exposure on cell-mediated immune functions. Clin Exp Immunol 1979; 35: 413-20.
43. Miller TE, Golemboski KA, Ha RS, Bunn T, Sanders FS, Dietert RR. Developmental exposure to lead causes persistent immunotoxicity in Fischer 344 rats. Toxicol Sci 1998; 42: 129-35.
44. Snyder JE, Filipov NM, Parsons PJ, Lawrence DA. The efficiency of maternal transfer of lead and its influence on plasma IgE and splenic cellularity of mice. Toxicol Sci 2000; 57: 87-94.
45. Annesi-Maesano I, Pollitt R, King G, et al. In utero exposure to lead and cord blood total IgE. Is there a connection? Allergy 2003; 58: 589-94.
46. Sun L, Hu J, Zhao Z, Li L, Chen H. Influence of exposure to environmental lead on serum immunoglobulin in preschool children. Environ Res 2003; 92: 124-8.
47. Pilones K, Lai Z-W, Gavalchin J. Prenatal HgCl2 exposure alters fetal cell phenotypes. J Immunotoxicol 2007; 4: 295-301.
48. Srivastava S, D'Souza SE, Sen U, States JC. In utero arsenic exposure induces early onset of atherosclerosis in ApoE-/- mice. Reprod Toxicol 2007; 23: 449-56.
49. Gauthier TW, Drews-Botsch C, Falek A, Coles C, Brown LA. Maternal alcohol abuse and neonatal infection. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2005; 29: 1035-43.
50. Ping XD, Harris FL, Brown LA, Guathier TW. In vivo dysfunction of the term alveolar macrophage after in utero ethanol exposure. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2007; 31: 308-16.
51. Grossmann A, Astley SJ, Liggett HD, et al. Immune function in offspring of nonhuman primates (Macaca nemestrina) exposed weekly to 1.8 g/kg ethanol during pregnancy: preliminary observations. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1993; 17: 822-7.
52. Heilmann C, Grandjean P, Weile P, Nielsen F, Budtz-Jorgensen E. Reduced antibody responses to vaccinations in children exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls. PLoS Med 2006; 3: e311.
53. Weisglas-Kuperus N, Vreugdenhil HJ, Mulder PG. Immunological effects of environmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins in Dutch school children. Toxicol Lett 2004; 149: 281-5.
54. Dallaire F, Dewailly E, Venina C, et al. Effect of prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls on incidence of acute respiratory infections in preschool Inuit children. Environ Health Perspect 2006; 114: 1301-5.
55. Trosi R, Hatch EE, Titus-Ernstoff L, et al. Cancer risk in women prenatally exposed to diethylstilbestrol. Int J Cancer 2007; 121: 356-60.
56. Palmer JR, Wise LA, Hatch EE, et al. Prenatal diethylstilbestrol exposure and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2006; 15: 1509-14.
57. Baird DD, Wilcox AJ, Herbst AL. Self-reported allergy, infection, and autoimmune diseases among men and women exposed in utero to diethylstilbestrol. J Clin Epidemiol 1996; 49: 263-6.
58. Burke L, Segall-Blank M, Lorenzo C, Dynesius-Trentham R, Trentham D, Mortola JF. Altered immune response in adult women exposed to diethylstilbestrol in utero. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001; 185: 78-81.
59. Pucci S, Incorvaia C. Allergy as an organ and a systemic disease. Clin Exp Immunol 2008; 153(Suppl 1): 1-2.
60. Stensballe LG, Kritensen K, Simones EA et al. Atopic disposition, wheezing and subsequent respiratory syncytial virus hospitalization in Danish children younger than 18 months: a nested case-control study. Pediatrics 2006; 118: e1360-8.
61. Tirosh A, Mandel D, Mimouni FB, Zimlichman E, Shochat T, Kochba I. Autoimmune diseases in asthma. Ann Intern Med2006; 144: 877-83.
62. Dokmeci E, Herrick CA. The immune system and atopic dermatitis. Semin Cutan Med Surg 2008; 27: 138-43.
63. Galli E, Gianni S, Auricchio G, Brunetti E, Mancino G, Rossi P. Atopic dermatitis and asthma. Allergy Asthma Proc 2008; 28: 540-3.
64. Burgess JA, Dharmage SC, Byrnes GB, et al. Childhood eczema and asthma incidence and persistence: a cohort study from childhood to middle age. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008; 122: 280-5.
65. Matsushita T, Fujimoto M, Echigo T, et al. Elevated serum levels of APRIL, but not BAFF, in patients with atopic dermatitis. Exp Dematol 2008; 17: 197-202.
66. Rzehak P, Schoefer Y, Wichmann HE, Heinrich J. A prospective study on the association between hay fever among children and incidence of asthma in East Germany. Eur J Epidemiol 2008; 23: 17-22.
67. Burgess JA, Walters EH, Byrnes GB, et al. Childhood allergic rhinitis predicts asthma incidence and persistence to middle age: a longitudinal study. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007; 120: 863-9.
68. Yunksel H, Dinc G, Sakar A, et al. Prevalence and comorbidity of allergic eczema, rhinitis, and asthma in a city in western Turkey. J Invest Allergol Clin Immunol 2008; 18: 31-5.
69. Ostblom E, Lilja G, Pershagen, G, van Hage M, Wickman M. Phenotypes of food hypersensitivity and development of allergic diseases during the first 8 years of life. Clin Exp Allergy 2008; 38: 1325-32.
70. Ergan Arsava B, Karakaya G, Fuat Kalyoncu A. Childhood onset analgesic intolerance: a marker for bronchial asthma in adulthood? Respir Med 2008; 102: 1011-4.
71. Caminiti L, Passalacqua G, Magazzu G, et al. Chronic urticaria and associated coeliac disease in children: a case-control study. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2005; 16: 428-32.
72. Zauli D, Grassi A, Granito A, et al. Prevalence of silent coeliac disease in atopics. Dig Liver Dis 2000; 32: 775-9.
73. De Roos AJ, Cooper GS, Alavanja MC, Sandler DP. Personal and family medical history correlates of rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Epidemiol 2008; 18: 433-9.
74. Rabin RL, Levison AI. The nexus between atopic disease and autoimmunity: a review of the epidemiological and mechanistic literature. Clin Exp Immunol 2008; 153: 19-30.
75. Merrill RM, Isakson RT, Beck RE. The association between allergies and cancer: what is currently known? Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2007; 99: 102-16.
76. Stern M, Buser AS, Lohri A, Tichelli A, Nissen-Druey C. Autoimmunity and malignancy in hematology - more than an association. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2007; 63: 100-110.
77. Soderberg KC, Jonsson F, Winqvist O, Hagmar L, Feychting M. Autoimmune diseases, asthma and risk of haematological malignancies: a nationwide case-control study in Sweden. Eur J Cancer 2006; 42: 3028-33.
78. Harrison LC, Honeyman MC, Morahan G, et al. Type 1 diabetes: Lessons for other autoimmune diseases? J Autoimmun 2008; 31(3): 306-10.
79. Valentino R, Savastano S, Maglio M, et al. Markers of potential coeliac disease in patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis. Eur J Endocrinol 2002; 146: 479-83.
80. Sari S, Yesilkaya E, Egritas O, Bideci A, Dalgic B. Prevalence of celiac disease in Turkish children with autoimmune thyroiditis. Dig Dis Sci 2008.
81. Guliter S, Yakaryilmaz F, Ozkurt Z, et al. Prevalence of coeliac disease in patients with autoimmune thyroiditis in a Turkish population. World J Gasteroenterol 2007; 13: 1599-01.
82. Dalamaga M, Lekka A, Karmaniolas K, Stathopoulou E, Dionyssiou-Asteriou A. Is thyroid autoimmunity a risk factor for developing primary myelodysplastic syndrome? Cancer Causes Control 2008; 19: 371-8.
83. Fierabracci P, Pinchera A, Campani D, Pollina LE, Guistarini E, Giani C. Association between breast cancer and autoimmune thyroid disorders: no increase of lymphocytic infiltrates in breast malignant tissues. J Endocrin Invest 2006; 29: 248-51.
84. Jiskra J, Limanova Z, Barkmanova JSmutek D, Friedmannova Z. Autoimmune thyroid diseases in women with breast cancer and colorectal cancer. Physiol Res 2004; 53: 693-702.
85. Fasano A, Catassi C. Coeliac disease in children. Best Prac Res Clin Gasteroenterol 2005; 19: 467-78.
86. Stone ML, Bohane TD, Whitten KE, Tobias VH, Day AS. Age related clinical features of childhood coeliac disease in Australia. BMC Pediatr 2005; 5: 11.
87. Brandtzaeg P. The changing immunological paradigm in coeliac disease. Immunol Lett 2006; 105: 127-39.
88. Ciccocioppo R, Ricci G, Rovati B, et al. Reduced number and function of peripheral dendritic cells in coeliac disease. Clin Exp Immunol 2007; 149: 487-96.
89. Grose RH, Cummins AG, Thompson FM. Deficiency of invariant natural killer T cells in coeliac disease. Gut 2007; 56: 790-5.
90. Collin P, Maki M, Keyrilainen O, Hallstrom O, Reunala T, Pasternack A. Selective IgA deficiency and coeliac disease. Scand J Gastroenterol 1992; 27: 367-71.
91. Cataldo F, Marino V, Ventura A, Bottaro, Corazza GR. Prevalence and clinical features of selective immunoglobulin a deficiency in coeliac disease: an Italian multicentre study. Gut 1998; 42: 362-5.
92. Ludvigsson JF, Wahlstrom J, Grunewald J, Ekbom J, Montgomery SM. Coeliac disease and risk of sarcoidosis. Sarciodosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 2007; 24:121-6.
93. Ludvigsson JF, Ludvisson J, Ekbom A, Montgomery SM. Celiac disease and risk of subsequent type 1 diabetes: a general population cohort study of children and adolescents. Diabetes Care 2006; 29: 2483-8.
94. Franzese A, Lombardi F, Valerio G, Spagnuolo MI. Update on coeliac disease and type 1 diabetes mellitus in childhood. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2007; 20: 1257-64.
95. Hadithi M, de Boer H, Meijer JW, et al. Coeliac disease in Dutch patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis and vice versa. World J Gasteroenterol 2007; 13: 1715-22.
96. Grey-Davies E, Hows JM, Marsh JC. A plastic anaemia in association with coeliac disease: a series of three cases. Brit J Haematol 2008; 143(2): 258-60.
97. Hwang E, McBride R, Neugut AI, Green PH. Sarcoidosis in patients with celiac disease. Dig Dis Sci 2008; 53: 977-81.
98. Quaglietta L, Coccorullo P, Miele E, Pascarella F, Troncone R, Staiano A. Eosinophilic oesophagitis and coeliac disease: is there an association? Aliment Phamacol Ther 2007; 26: 487-93.
99. Leeds JS, Horoldt BS, Sidhu R, et al. Is there an association between coeliac disease and inflammatory bowel diseases? A study of relative prevalence in comparison with population controls. Scand J Gasteroenterol 2007; 42: 1214-20.
100. Wei L, Spiers E, Reynolds N, Walsh S, Fahey T, MacDonald TM. The association between coeliac disease and cardiovascular disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2008; 27: 514-9.
101. Elfstrom P, Hamsten A, Montgomery SM, Ekbom A, Ludvigsson, JF. Cardiomyopathy, pericarditis and myocarditis in a population-based cohort of inpatients with coeliac disease. J Intern Med 2007; 262: 545-54.
102. Leggio L, Cadoni G, D'Angelo C, et al. Coeliac disease and hearing loss: preliminary data on a new possible association. Scand J Gasteroenterol 2007; 42: 1209-13.
103. Thomas HJ, Wotton CJ, Yeates D, Ahmad T, Jewell DP, Goldacre MJ. Pneumococcal infection in patients with coeliac disease. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008; 20: 624-8.
104. Nadal I, Donat E, Ribes-Koninckx C, Calabuig M, Sanz Y. Imbalance in the composition of the duodenal microbiota of children with coeliac disease. J Med Microbiol 2008; 56: 1669-74.
105. Bossu M, Bartoli A, Orsini G,Luppino E, Polimeni A. Enamel hypoplasia in coeliac children: a potential clinical marker of early diagnosis. Eur J Paediatr Dent 2007; 8: 31-7.
106. Wierink CD, van Diermen DE, Aartman IH, Heymans HS. Dental enamel defects in children with coeliac disease. Int J Paediatr Dis 2007; 17: 163-8.
107. Ludvigsson JF, Wahlstrom J, Grunewald J, et al. Ekbom J, Montgomery SM. Coeliac disease and risk of tuberculosis: a population based cohort study. Thorax 2007; 62: 23-8.
108. Sjoberg K, Roth EB, Gustavsson L, et al. Autoimmune markers in lymphoid malignancies. Scand J Immunol 2008; 67: 509-15.
109. Goldacre MJ, Wotton CJ, Yeates D, Seagroatt J, Collier J. Cancer in patients with ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease and coeliac disease: record linkage study. Eur J Gasteroenterol Hepatol 2008; 20: 297-304.
110. Mearin ML, Catassi C, Brousse N, et al. European multi-centre study on coeliac disease and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006; 18: 187-94.
111. Anderson LA, McMillan S, Watson RG, et al. Malignancy and mortality in a population-based cohort of patients with coeliac disease or "gluten sensitivity". World J Gastroenterol 2007; 13: 146-51.
112. Kent L, McBride R, McConnell R, Neugut AI, Bhagat G, Green PH. Increased risk of papillary thyroid cancer in celiac disease. Dig Dis Sci 2006; 51: 1875-7.
113. Ludvigsson JF, Olsson T, Ekbom A, Montgomery SM. A population-based study of coeliac disease, neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory diseases. Aliment Phamacol Ther 2007; 25: 1317-27.
114. Alehan F, Ozcay F, Erol I,. Canan O, Cemil T. Increased risk for coeliac disease in paediatric patients with migraine. Cephalagia 2008; 28: 945-9.
115. Ehehalt S, Blumenstck G, Willasch AM, et al. Continuous rise in incidence of childhood Type 1 diabetes in Germany. Diabet Med 2008; 25: 755-7.
116. Bluestone JA, Tang Q, Sedwick CE. T Regulatory cells in autoimmune diabetes: past challenges, future prospects. J Clin Immunol 2008; 28(6): 677-84.
117. Vuckovic S, Withers G, Harris M, et al. Decreased blood dendritic cell counts in type 1 diabetic children. Clin Exp Immunol 2007; 123: 281-8.
118. Mantovani RM, Mantovani LM, Dias VM. Thyroid autoimmunity in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus: prevalence and risk factors. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2007; 20:669-75.
119. Goh C, Bannerjee K. Prevalence of coeliac disease in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus in a clinic based population. Postgrad Med J 2007; 83: 132-6.
120. Nielsson NM, Westergaard T, Frisch M, et al. Type 1 diabetes and multiple sclerosis: A Danish population-based cohort study. Arch Neuol 2008; 63: 1001-4.
121. Kara C, Centinkaya S, Sezgin N, Kinik ST. The effects of metabolic control on oxidized low-density lipoprotein antibodies in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Pediatr Diabetes 2008; 9: 17-22.
122. Pessin AB, Martins RH, Pimenta WdeP, Simose AC, Marsiglia A, Amaral AV. Auditory evaluation in patients with type 1 diabetes. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 2008; 117: 366-70.
123. Cakir M, Akcay S, Karakas T, Gedik Y, Okten A, Orhan F. Prevalence of atopy in children with type 1 diabetes mellitus, hepatitis B virus carriers, and healthy children: role of T helper 1 (Th1)-type immune response. Asthma Allergy Proc 2008; 29: 166-70.
124. Stagi S, Giani T, Simonini G, Falcini F. Thyroid function, autoimmune thyroiditis and coeliac disease in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2005; 44: 517-20.
125. Sidiropoulos PI., Karvounaris SA, Boumpas DT. Metabolic syndrome in rheumatic diseases: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and clinical implications. Arthritis Res Ther 2008; 10: 207.
126. Aubry MC, Maradit-Kremers H, Reinalda MS, Crowson CS, Edwards WD, Gabriel SE. Differences in atherosclerotic coronary heart disease between subjects with and without rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 2007; 34: 937-42.
127. Stagi S, Simonini G, Ricci L, de Martino M, Falcini F. Coeliac disease in patients with Kawasaki disease. Is there a link? Rheumatology (Oxford) 2006; 45: 847-50.
128. Sundel RP, Cleveland SS, Beiser AS, et al. Audiologic profiles of children with Kawasaki disease. Am J Otol 1992; 13: 512-5.
129. Santou GM, Giamelli J, Gewitz MH. Kawasaki disease: diagnosis, management, and long-term implications. Cardiol Res 2007; 15: 163-9.
130. Fairweather D, Frisancho-Kiss S, Rose NR. Sex differences in autoimmune disease from a pathological perspective. Am J Pathol 2008; 173: 600-9.
131. Parks CG, Cooper GS, Dooley MA, Park MM, Treadwell EL, Gilkeson GS. Childhood agricultural and adult occupational exposures to organic dusts in a population-based case-control study of systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2008; 17: 711-19.
132. Jeffries M, Bruner G, Glenn S, et al. Sulpha allergy in lupus patients: a clinical perspective. Lupus 2008; 17: 202-5.
133. Bowser CS, Kumar S, Salciccioli L, et al. Absence of Chlamydia pneumoniae and signs of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in adolescents with systemic lupus erythematosus. Pediatr Cardiol 2008; 29: 545-51.
134. Gupta D, Mizra N. Systemic lupus erythematosus, celiac disease and antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: a rare association. Rheumatoid Int 2008; 28: 1179-80.
135. Hou CL, Tsai YC, Chen LC, Huang JL. Tuberculosis infection in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: pulmonary and extrapulmonary infection compared. Clin Rheumatol 2008; 27: 557-63.
136. Chen HS, Tsai WP, Leu HS, Ho HH, Liou LB. Invasive fungal infection in systemic lupus erythematosus: an analysis of 15 cases and a literature review. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2007; 46: 539-44.
137. Su BY, Su CY, Yu SF, Chen CJ. Incidental discovery of high systemic lupus erythematosus disease activity associated with cytomegalovirus viral activity. Med Microbiol Immunol 2007; 196: 165-70.
138. Kuo CC, Lin SC. Altered FOXO1 transcript levels in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis patients. Mol Med 2007; 13: 561-6.
139. Sundstrom P, Nystrom L, Hallmans G. Smoke exposure increases the risk for multiple sclerosis. Eur J Neurol 2008; 15: 579-83.
140. Sanna A, Huang YM, Arru G, Fois M, Link H, Rosati G, Sotigiu S. Multiple sclerosis: reduced proportion of circulating plasmacytoid dendritic cells expressing BDCA-2 and BDCA-4 and reduced production of IL-6 and IL-10 in response to herpes simplex virus type 1. Mult Scler 2008; 14: 1199-207.
141. Potagas C, Giogkaraki E, Koutsis G, et al. Cognitive impairment in different MS subtypes and clinically isolated syndromes. J Neurosci 2008; 267: 100-6.
142. Manconi M, Fabbrini M, Bonanni E, et al. High prevalence of restless legs syndrome in multiple sclerosis. Eur J Neuol 2007; 14: 534-9.
143. Redelings MD, McCoy L, Sorvillo F. Multiple sclerosis mortality and patterns of comorbidity in the United States from 1990 to 2001. Neuroepidemiology 2006; 26: 102-7.
144. Lobentanz IS, Asenbaum S, Vass K, et al. Factors influencing quality of life in multiple sclerosis patients: disability, depressive mood, fatigue and sleep quality. Acta Neurol Scand 2004; 110: 6-13.
145. Arnett PA, Barwick FH, Beeney JE. Depression in multiple sclerosis: review and theoretical proposal. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2008; 14: 691-724.
146. Bamer A, Johnson K, Amtmann D, Kraft GH. Prevalence of sleep problems in individuals with multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler 2008; 14: 1127-30.
147. Kessing LV, Harhoff M, Anderson PK. Increased rate of treatment with antidepressants in patients with multiple sclerosis. Int Clin Psycopharmacol 2008; 23: 54-9.
148. Jara LJ, Navarro C, Brito-Zeron MDelP, Garcia-Carrasco M, Escarcega RO, Ramos-Casals M. Thyroid disease in Sjögren's syndrome. Clin Rheumatol 2007; 26: 1601-6.
149. Tzioufas AG, Tsonis J, Moutsopoulos HM. Neuroendocrine dysfunction in Sjogren's syndrome. Neuroimmunomodulation 2008; 15: 37-45.
150. Sthoeger Z, Neiman A, Elbirt D, et al. High prevalence of systemic lupus erythematosus in 78 myasthenia gravis patients: a clinical and serologic study. Am J Med Sci 2006; 331: 4-9.
151. Greaves M. Infection, immune responses and the aetiology of childhood leukaemia. Nat Rev Cancer 2006; 6: 193-203.
152. Nyari TA, Kajtar P, Bartyik K, et al. Seasonal variation of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia is different between girls and boys. Pathol Oncol Res 2008.
153. Hamblin TJ. Autoimmune complications of chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Semin Oncol 2006; 33: 230-9.
154. Mittal S, Blaylock M.G, Culligan DJ, Barker RN, Vickers MA. A high rate of CLL phenotype lymphocytes in autoimmune hemolytic anemia and immune thrombocytopenic purpura. Hematologica 2008; 93:151-2.
155. Visco C, Ruggeri M, Laura Evangelista M, et al. Impact of immune thrombocytopenia on the clinical course of chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood 2008; 111: 1110-6.
156. Ghia P, Scielzo C, Frenquelli M, Munzio M, Caligaris-Cappio F. From normal to clonal B cells: Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) at the crossroad between neoplasia and autoimmunity. Autoimmun Rev 2007; 7: 127-31.
157. Landren O, Engels EA, Caporaso NE, et al. Patterns of autoimmunity and subsequent chronic lymphocytic leukemia in Nordic countries. Blood 2006; 108: 292-6.
158. Ruder EH, Dorgan JF, Kranz S, Kris-Etherton PM, Hartman TJ. Examining breast cancer growth and lifestyle risk factors: early life, childhood, and adolescence. Clin Breast Cancer 2008; 8: 334-42.
159. Soto AM, Vandenberg LN, Maffini MV, Sonnenchein C. Does breast cancer start in the womb? Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2008; 102: 125-33.
160. Haversen L, Danielsson KN, Fogelstrand L, Wiklund O. Induction of proinflammatory cytokines by long-chain saturated fatty acids in human macrophages. Atherosclerosis 2008.
161. Meier P, Meier R, Blanc E. Influence of CD4+/CD25+ regulatory T cells on atherogenesis in patients with end-stage kidney disease. Expert Rev Cadiovasc Ther 2008; 6: 987-97.
162. Spah F. Inflammation in atherosclerosis and psoriasis: common pathogenic mechanisms and the potential for an integrated treatment approach. Brit J Dematol 2008; 159(Suppl 2): 10-17.
163. Vinereanu D. Risk factors for atherosclerotic disease: present and future. Herz 2006; 31(Suppl 3): 5-24.
164. Hoffmann B, Moebus S, Mohlenkamp S, et al. Residential exposure to traffic is associated with coronary atherosclerosis. Circulation 2008; 116: 489-96.
165. Lamon BD, Hajjar DP. Inflammation at the molecular interface of atherogenesis: an anthropological journey. Am J Pathol 2008; 173: 1253-64.
166. Nakashima Y, Wright TN, Sueishi K. Early atherosclerosis in humans: role of diffuse intimal thickening and extracellular matrix proteoglycans. Cardiovasc Res 2008; 79: 14-23.
167. Pacifico L, Cantisani V, Ricci P, et al. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and carotid atherosclerosis in children. Pediatr Res 2008; 63: 423-7.
168. Charakida M, Deanfield JE, Halcox JP. Childhood origins of arterial disease. Curr Opin Pediatr 2008; 19: 538-45.
169. Nilsson PM, Lurbe E, Larent S. The early life origins of vascular ageing and cardiovascular risk: the EVA syndrome. J Hypertens 2008; 26: 1049-57.
170. Kelishadi R, Mirghaffari N, Poursafa P, Gidding SS. Lifestyle and environmental factors associated with inflammation, oxidative stress and insulin resistance in children. Atherosclerosis 2008.
171. Martino F, Loffredo L., Carnevale R, et al. Oxidative stress is associated with arterial dysfunction and enhanced intima-media thickness in children with hypercholesterolemia: the potential role of nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase. Pediatrics 2008; 122: e648-55.
172. Shively CA, Musselman DL, Willard SL. Stress, depression, and coronary artery disease: Modeling comorbidity in female primates. Neurosci Behavior Rev 2009; 33(2): 133-44.
173. Somberg TC, Arora RR. Depression and heart disease: therapeutic implications. Cardiology 2008; 111: 75-81.
174. Vaudo G, Marchesi S, Siepi D, et al. Metabolic syndrome and preclinical atherosclerosis: focus on femoral arteries. Metabolism 2007; 56: 541-6.
175. Castro M, Papadatou B, Baldassare M, et al. Inflammatory bowel disease in children and adolescents in Italy: data from the pediatric national IBD register (1996-2003). Inflamm Bowel Dis 2008; 14: 1246-52.
176. Andoh A, Yagi Y, Shioya M, Nishida A, Tsuikawa T, Fuiyama Y. Mucosal cytokine network in inflammatory bowel disease. World J Gastroenterol 2008; 14: 5154-61.
177. Ardizzone S, Puttini PS, Cassinotti A, Porro GB. Extraintestinal manifestations of inflammatory bowel disease. Dig Liver Dis 2008; 40(Suppl2): S253-9.
178. Klement E, Lysy J, Hoshen M, Avitan, M, Goldin E, Israeli E. Childhood hygiene is associated with the risk for inflammatory bowel disease: a population-based study. Am J Gastroenterol 2008; 103: 1775-82.
179. Cannioto Z, Berti I, Martelossi S, et al. IBD and IBD mimicking enterocolitis in children younger than 2 years of age. Eur J Pediatr 2009; 168(2): 149-55.
180. Haller CA, Markowitz J. IBD in children: lessons for adults. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2008; 9: 528-32.
181. Van Limbergen J, Russell RK, Drummond HE, et al. Definition of phenotypic characteristics of childhood-onset inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 2008; 135: 1114-22.
182. Newby EA, Croft NM, Green M, et al. Natural history of paediatric inflammatory bowel diseases over a 5-year follow-up: a retrospective review of data from the register of paediatric inflammatory bowel diseases. J Pediatr Gasterenterol Nutr 2008; 46(5): 539-45.
183. Bernstein CN, Wajda A, Blanchard JF. The clustering of other chronic inflammatory diseases in inflammatory bowel disease: a population-based study. Gastroenterology 2005; 129: 827-36.
184. Xie J, Itzkowitz SH. Cancer in inflammatory bowel disease. World J Gastroenterol 2006; 14: 378-89.
185. Van Biervliet S, Velde SV, De Bruyne R, De Looze D, De Vos M, Van Winckel M. Epstein-Barr virus related lymphoma in inflammatory bowel disease. Acta Gastroenterol Belg 2008; 71: 33-5.
186. Brackmann S, Anderson SN, Aamodt G, et al. Two distinct groups of colorectal cancer in inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2008; in press.
187. Roessner A, Kuester D, Malfertheiner P, Schneider-Stock R. Oxidative
188. Ranjbaran Z, Keefer L, Farhadi A, Stepanski E, Sedghi S, Keshavarzian A. Impact of sleep disturbances in inflammatory bowel disease. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2007; 22: 1748-53.
189. Mikocka-Walus AA., Turnbull DA, Moulding NT, Wilson IG, Andrews JM, Holtmann GJ. Controversies surrounding the comorbidity of depression and anxiety in inflammatory bowel disease patients: a literature review. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2007; 13: 225-34.
190. Dietert RR, Dietert, JM.. Possible role for early-life immune insult including developmental immunotoxicity in chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) or myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME). Toxicology 2008a; 247: 61-72.
191. Togo F, Natelson B., Cherniack NS, FitzGibbons J, Garcon C, Rapoport DM. Sleep structure and sleepiness in chronic fatigue syndrome with or without coexisting fibromyalgia. Arthritis Res Ther 2008; 10: R56.
192. Allen PR.. Chronic fatigue syndrome: implications for women and their health care providers during the childbearing years. J Midwifery Womens Health 53: 289-301.
193. Rimes KA, Goodman R, Hotopf M, Wessely S, Meltzer H, Chalder T. Incidence, prognosis, and risk factors for fatigue and chronic fatigue syndrome in adolescents: a prospective community study. Pediatrics 2007; 119: e603-9.
194. Sankley A, Hill CM, Brown J, Quinn L, Fletcher A. A follow-up study of chronic fatigue syndrome in children and adolescents: symptom persistence and school absenteeism. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatr 2007; 11: 126-38.
195. Davies S, Crawley E. Chronic fatigue syndrome in children aged 11 years old and younger. Arch Dis Child 2008; 93: 419-21.
196. ter Wolbeek M, van Doornen LJ, Kavelaars A, van de Putte EM, Schedlowski M, Heijnen CJ. Longitudinal analysis of pro- and antiinflammatory cytokine production in severely fatigued adolescents. Brain Behav Immunol 2007; 21: 1063-74.
197. Miike T. Childhood chronic fatigue syndrome. Nippon Rhinsho 2007; 65:1099-104.
198. Cicoone DS, Natelson BH. Comorbid illness in women with chronic fatigue syndrome: a test of the single syndrome hypothesis. Psychosom Med 2003; 65: 268-75.
199. Romero E, Guaza C, Castellano B, Borrell J. Ontogeny of sensorimotor gating and immune impairment induced by prenatal immune challenge in rats: implications for the etiopathology of schizophrenia. Mol Psychiatry 2008; in press.
200. Eaton WW, Byrne M, Ewald H, et al. Association of schizophrenia and autoimmune diseases: linkage of Danish national registers. Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163: 521-8.
201. Potvin S, Stip E, Sepehry AA, Gendron A, Bah R, Kouassi E. Inflammatory cytokine alterations in schizophrenia: a systematic quantitative review. Biol Psychiatry 2008; 63: 801-8.
202. Strous RD, Shoenfeld Y. To smell the immune system: olfaction, autoimmunity and brain involvement. Autoimmun Rev 2006; 6: 54-60.
203. Davidson M. Risk of cardiovascular disease and sudden death in schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 2002; 63(Suppl 9): 5-11.
204. Othman SS, Abdul Kadir K, Hassan J, Hong GK, Singh BB, Raman N. High prevalence of thyroid function test abnormalities in chronic schizophrenia. Aust NZ J Psychaitry 1994; 28: 620-4.
205. Poyraz BC, Aksoy C, Balcioglu I. Increased incidence of autoimmune thyroiditis in patients with antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinemia. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2008; 18: 667-72
206. Tewkfik TL, Mazer B. The links between allergy and otitis media with effusion. Curr Opin Ontolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2006; 14: 187-90.
207. Luong A, Rolland PS. The link between allergic rhinitis and chronic otitis media with effusion in atopic patients. Ontolarynol Clin North Am 2008; 41: 311-23.
208. Nathan RA. The burden of allergic rhinitis. Allergy Asthma Proc 2007; 28: 3-9.
209. Bentdal YE, Nafstad P, Karevold G, Kvaerner KJ. Acute otitis media in schoolchildren: allergic diseases and skin prick test positivity. Acta Ontolaryngol 2007; 127: 480-5.
210. TangY, Xu X, Song H, et al. Early diagnostic and prognostic significance of a specific Th1/Th2 cytokine pattern in children with haemophagocytic syndrome. Brit J Haematol 2008; 143: 84-91.
211. Michelow IC, Katz K, McCracken GH, Hardy WD. Systemic cytokine profile in children with community-acquired pneumonia. Pediatr Pulmonol 2007; 42: 640-5.
212. Hansbro NG, Horvat JC, Wark PA, Hansbro PM. Understanding the mechanisms of viral induced athma: new therapeutic directions. Phamacol Ther 2008; 117: 313-53.
213. Tourdot S, Mathie S, Hussell T, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus infection provokes airway remodelling in allergen-exposed mice in absence of prior allergen sensitization. Clin Exp Allergy 2008; 38: 1016-24.
214. Bulet Y, Guven M, Otlu B, et al. Acute otitis media and respiratory viruses. Eur J Pedaitr 2007; 166: 223-8.
215. Ashwood P, Wills S, Van de Water J. The immune response in autism: a new frontier for autism research. J Leukoc Biol 2006; 80: 1-15.
216. Ashwood P, Enkstrom A, Krakowiak P, et al. Decreased transforming growth factor beta1 in autism: A potential link between immune dysregulation and impairment in clinical behavioral outcomes. J Neuroimmunol 2008; in press.
217. Krakowiac P, Goodlin-Jones B, Hertz-Piciotto I, Croen LA, Hansen RL. Sleep problems in children with autism spectrum disorders, developmental delays, and typical development: a population-based study. J Sleep Res 2008; 17: 197-206.
218. Ashwood P, Anthony A, Pellicer AA, Torrente F, Walker-Smith JA, Wakefield AJ. Intestinal lymphocyte populations in children with regressive autism: evidence for extensive mucosal immunopathology. J Clin Immunol 2003; 23: 504-17.
219. Welch MG, Welch-Horan TB, Anwar M, Anwar N, Ludwig RJ, Ruggiero DA. Brain effects of chronic IBD in areas abnormal in autism and treatment by single neuropeptides secretin and oxytocin. J Molec Neurosci 2005; 25: 259-74.
220. Boorom KF. Is this recently characterized gastrointestinal pathogen responsible for rising rates of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and IBD associated autism in Europe and the United States in the 1990s? Med Hypotheses 2007; 69: 652-9.
221. Amati L, Chiloiro M, Jirillo E, Covelli V. Early pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: the childhood obesity. Curr Pharm Des 2007; 13: 3696-700.
222. Akinci G, Akinci B, Coskun S, Bayindir P, Hekimsoy Z, Ozmen B. Evaluation of markers of inflammation, insulin resistance and endothelial dysfunction in children at risk for overweight. Hormones (Athens) 2008; 7: 156-62.
223. Bhardwaj S, Misra A, Khurana L, Gulati S, Shah P, Vikram NK. Childhood obesity in Asian Indians: a burgeoning cause of insulin resistance, diabetes and sub-clinical inflammation. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2008; 17(Suppl 1): 172-5.
224. Tzoulaki I, Jarvelin MR, Hartikainen AL, et al. Size at birth, weight gain over the life course, and low-grade inflammation in young adulthood: northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort study. Eur J Heart 2008; 29: 1049-56.
225. Warnberg J, Marcos A. Low-grade inflammation and the metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents. Curr Opin Lipidol 2008; 19: 11-15.
226. Ranjbaran Z, Keefer L, Stepanski E, Farhadi A, Keshavarzian A. The relevance of sleep abnormalities to chronic inflammatory conditions. Inflamm Res 2007; 56: 51-7.
227. Heim C, Newport DJ, Mletzko T, Miller AH, Nemeroff CB. The link between childhood trauma and depression: insights from HPA axis studies in humans. Pschoneuroendocrinology 2008; 33: 693-710.
228. Lemieux A, Coe CL, Carnes M. Symptom severity predicts degree of T cell activation in adult women following childhood maltreatment. Brain Behav Res 2008; 22: 994-1003.
229. Heim C, Wagner D, Maloney E, et al. Early adverse experience and risk for chronic fatigue syndrome: results from a population-based study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006; 63: 1258-66.
230. Lanphear BP, Byrd RS, Auinger H, Hall CB. Increasing prevalence of recurrent otitis media among children in the United States. Pediatrics 1997; 99(3): E1.
231. Anderson HR, Ruggles R, Stachan DP, et al. Trends in prevalence of symptoms of asthma, hay fever, and eczema in 12-14 year olds in the British Isles, 1995-2002: questionnaire survey. Brit Med J 2004; 328(7447): 1052-3.
232. Kagan RS. Food allergy: an overview. Environ Health Perspect 2003; 111(2): 223-25.
233. Fasano A, Berti I, Gerarduzzi T, Not T, et al. Prevalence of celiac disease in at-risk and not-at-risk groups in the United States: a large multicenter study. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163: 286-92.
234. Maki M, Mustalahti K, Kulmala P, et al. Prevalence of celiac disease among children in Finland. New Engl J Med 348: 2517-24.
235. Rallison ML, Dobyns BM, Keating FR, Rall JE, Tyler FH. Occurrence and natural history of chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis in childhood. J Pediatr 1975; 86: 675-82.
236. Helmick CG, Felson DT, Lawrence RC, et al. Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and other rheumatic conditions in the United States. Part I. Arthritis Rheum 2008; 58: 15-25.
237. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US). 2003. National diabetes fact sheet, United States, 2003. Located at http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/ pubs/pdf/ndfs_2003.pdf
238. National Cancer Policy Board, Institute of Medicine. Childhood cancer survivorship: improving care and quality of life. National Academies Press. Washington DC, 2003.
239. Hamada S, Vearncombe M, McGeer A, Shah PS. Neonatal group B streptococcal disease: incidence, presentation, and mortality. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2008; 21: 53-7.
240. Belay, ED, Holman, RC, Clark MJ, et al. The incidence of Kawasaki syndrome in West Coast health maintenance organizations. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000; 19: 828-32.
241. Tsuji T, Suzuki J, Shimamoto R, et al. Morbidity prevalence rate of Kawasaki disease assessed by single cross-sectional history-taking. Intern Heart J 2007; 4: 615-21.
242. Makhoul IR, Sujov P, Smolkin T, Lusky A, Reichman B. Israel Neonatal network. Pathogen-specific early mortality in very low birth weight infants with late-onset sepsis: a national survey. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40: 218-24.
243. Bayam G, Khoo SK, Rowe J, et al. Parental smoking impairs vaccine responses in children with atopic genotypes. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007; 119: 366-74.