Diagnosis of Hepatocellular carcinoma

World Journal of Gastroenterology

Volumn 15, Issue 11, 2009, Pages 1301-1314

  Gomaa, Asmaa I ^a,b   Khan, Shahid A ^a   Leen, Edward L S ^a   Waked, Imam ^b   Taylor Robinson, Simon D ^a  

^a IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b MENOUFIA UNIVERSITY   (Egypt)

Author keywords

Diagnosis; Hepatocellular carcinoma; Imaging; Serum markers

Indexed keywords

AGGLUTININ; ALPHA FETOPROTEIN; ALPHA LEVO FUCOSIDASE; DECARBOXYPROTHROMBIN; GLYPICAN 3; GOLGI PROTEIN 73; MEMBRANE PROTEIN; SCATTER FACTOR; SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA ANTIGEN; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA1; TUMOR MARKER; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VASCULOTROPIN; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; GOLM1 PROTEIN, HUMAN; PROTEIN PRECURSOR; PROTHROMBIN; SERINE PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA RELATED ANTIGEN; SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA-RELATED ANTIGEN; TUMOR ANTIGEN; VASCULOTROPIN A;

ASPIRATION BIOPSY; COLOR ULTRASOUND FLOWMETRY; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT; DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH ROUTE; ECHOGRAPHY; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; LENTIL; LIVER ANGIOGRAPHY; LIVER CELL CARCINOMA; MULTIDETECTOR COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PROGNOSIS; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PROTEOMICS; REVIEW; SURFACE ENHANCED LASER DESORPTION IONIZATION TIME OF FLIGHT MASS SPECTROMETRY; BLOOD; CANCER STAGING; HEPATITIS C; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; LIVER TUMOR; METABOLISM; PATHOLOGY; RADIOGRAPHY; RISK FACTOR;

ALPHA-FETOPROTEINS; ALPHA-L-FUCOSIDASE; ANTIGENS, NEOPLASM; BIOLOGICAL MARKERS; CARCINOMA, HEPATOCELLULAR; HEPATITIS C; HEPATOCYTE GROWTH FACTOR; HUMANS; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; LIVER NEOPLASMS; MEMBRANE PROTEINS; NEOPLASM STAGING; PROTEIN PRECURSORS; PROTEOMICS; PROTHROMBIN; RISK FACTORS; SERPINS; TUMOR MARKERS, BIOLOGICAL; VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL GROWTH FACTOR A;

EID: 65649126299     PISSN: 10079327     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3748/wjg.15.1301     Document Type: Review

References (144)

1. World Health Organization. Mortality database. Available from: URL: http://www.who.int/whosis/en/
2. Gupta S, Bent S, Kohlwes J. Test characteristics of alpha-fetoprotein for detecting hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with hepatitis C. A systematic review and critical analysis. Ann Intern Med 2003; 139: 46-50
3. França AV, Elias Junior J, Lima BL, Martinelli AL, Carrilho FJ. Diagnosis, staging and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Braz J Med Biol Res 2004; 37: 1689-1705
4. Terentiev AA, Moldogazieva NT. Structural and functional mapping of alpha-fetoprotein. Biochemistry (Mosc) 2006; 71: 120-132
5. Canick JA, MacRae AR. Second trimester serum markers. Semin Perinatol 2005; 29: 203-208
6. Ding X, Yang LY, Huang GW, Yang JQ, Liu HL, Wang W, Peng JX, Yang JQ, Tao YM, Chang ZG, Ling XS. Role of AFP mRNA expression in peripheral blood as a predictor for postsurgical recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. World J Gastroenterol 2005; 11: 2656-2661
7. Grizzi F, Franceschini B, Hamrick C, Frezza EE, Cobos E, Chiriva-Internati M. Usefulness of cancer-testis antigens as biomarkers for the diagnosis and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. J Transl Med 2007; 5: 3
8. Chen J, Röcken C, Treiber G, Jentsch-Ulrich K, Malfertheiner P, Ebert MP. Clinical implications of alpha-fetoprotein expression in gastric adenocarcinoma. Dig Dis 2003; 21: 357-362
9. Hiroshima K, Iyoda A, Toyozaki T, Haga Y, Baba M, Fujisawa T, Ishikura H, Ohwada H. Alpha-fetoprotein-producing lung carcinoma: report of three cases. Pathol Int 2002; 52: 46-53
10. Abelev GI, Perova SD, Khramkova NI, Postnikova ZA, Irlin IS. Production of embryonal alpha-globulin by transplantable mouse hepatomas. Transplantation 1963; 1: 174-180
11. Ruoslahti E, Seppälä M. Studies of carcino-fetal proteins. 3. Development of a radioimmunoassay for -fetoprotein. Demonstration of -fetoprotein in serum of healthy human adults. Int J Cancer 1971; 8: 374-383
12. Daniele B, Bencivenga A, Megna AS, Tinessa V. Alpha-fetoprotein and ultrasonography screening for hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 2004; 127: S108-S112
13. Ebara M, Ohto M, Kondo F. Strategy for early diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Ann Acad Med Singapore 1989; 18: 83-89
14. Trevisani F, D'Intino PE, Morselli-Labate AM, Mazzella G, Accogli E, Caraceni P, Domenicali M, De Notariis S, Roda E, Bernardi M. Serum alpha-fetoprotein for diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with chronic liver disease: influence of HBsAg and anti-HCV status. J Hepatol 2001; 34: 570-575
15. Lescano M, Carneiro M, Elias Junior J, Martinelli A, França A. Experiencia inicial en la evaluación de pacientes with carcinoma hepatocelular em um Hospital terciario. Gastroenterología y Hepatología 2002, 25 Suppl 2: I-9-I-43
16. Lok AS, Lai CL. alpha-Fetoprotein monitoring in Chinese patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection: role in the early detection of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 1989; 9: 110-115
17. Yuen MF, Lai CL. Serological markers of liver cancer. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2005; 19: 91-99
18. Yuen MF, Lai CL. Screening for hepatocellular carcinoma: survival benefit and cost-effectiveness. Ann Oncol 2003; 14: 1463-1467
19. Sakata J, Shirai Y, Wakai T, Kaneko K, Nagahashi M, Hatakeyama K. Preoperative predictors of vascular invasion in hepatocellular carcinoma. Eur J Surg Oncol 2008; 34: 900-905
20. Llovet JM, Beaugrand M. Hepatocellular carcinoma: present status and future prospects. J Hepatol 2003; 38 Suppl 1: S136-S149
21. Farinati F, Marino D, De Giorgio M, Baldan A, Cantarini M, Cursaro C, Rapaccini G, Del Poggio P, Di Nolfo MA, Benvegnù L, Zoli M, Borzio F, Bernardi M, Trevisani F. Diagnostic and prognostic role of alpha-fetoprotein in hepatocellular carcinoma: both or neither? Am J Gastroenterol 2006; 101: 524-532
22. Zhou L, Liu J, Luo F. Serum tumor markers for detection of hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol 2006; 12: 1175-1181
23. Taketa K, Okada S, Win N, Hlaing NK, Wind KM. Evaluation of tumor markers for the detection of hepatocellular carcinoma in Yangon General Hospital, Myanmar. Acta Med Okayama 2002; 56: 317-320
24. Khien VV, Mao HV, Chinh TT, Ha PT, Bang MH, Lac BV, Hop TV, Tuan NA, Don LV, Taketa K, Satomura S. Clinical evaluation of lentil lectin-reactive alpha-fetoprotein-L3 in histology-proven hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Biol Markers 2001; 16: 105-111
25. Kumada T, Nakano S, Takeda I, Kiriyama S, Sone Y, Hayashi K, Katoh H, Endoh T, Sassa T, Satomura S. Clinical utility of Lens culinaris agglutinin-reactive alpha-fetoprotein in small hepatocellular carcinoma: special reference to imaging diagnosis. J Hepatol 1999; 30: 125-130
26. Tateishi R, Shiina S, Yoshida H, Teratani T, Obi S, Yamashiki N, Yoshida H, Akamatsu M, Kawabe T, Omata M. Prediction of recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma after curative ablation using three tumor markers. Hepatology 2006; 44: 1518-1527
27. Miyaaki H, Nakashima O, Kurogi M, Eguchi K, Kojiro M. Lens culinaris agglutinin-reactive alpha-fetoprotein and protein induced by vitamin K absence II are potential indicators of a poor prognosis: a histopathological study of surgically resected hepatocellular carcinoma. J Gastroenterol 2007; 42: 962-968
28. Hagiwara S, Kudo M, Kawasaki T, Nagashima M, Minami Y, Chung H, Fukunaga T, Kitano M, Nakatani T. Prognostic factors for portal venous invasion in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. J Gastroenterol 2006; 41: 1214-1219
29. Wright LM, Kreikemeier JT, Fimmel CJ. A concise review of serum markers for hepatocellular cancer. Cancer Detect Prev 2007; 31: 35-44
30. Weitz IC, Liebman HA. Des-gamma-carboxy (abnormal) prothrombin and hepatocellular carcinoma: a critical review. Hepatology 1993; 18: 990-997
31. Liebman HA, Furie BC, Tong MJ, Blanchard RA, Lo KJ, Lee SD, Coleman MS, Furie B. Des-gamma-carboxy (abnormal) prothrombin as a serum marker of primary hepatocellular carcinoma. N Engl J Med 1984; 310: 1427-1431
32. Marrero JA, Su GL, Wei W, Emick D, Conjeevaram HS, Fontana RJ, Lok AS. Des-gamma carboxyprothrombin can differentiate hepatocellular carcinoma from nonmalignant chronic liver disease in american patients. Hepatology 2003; 37: 1114-1121
33. Semela D, Dufour JF. Angiogenesis and hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2004; 41: 864-880
34. Volk ML, Hernandez JC, Su GL, Lok AS, Marrero JA. Risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma may impair the performance of biomarkers: a comparison of AFP, DCP, and AFP-L3. Cancer Biomark 2007; 3: 79-87
35. Nakamura S, Nouso K, Sakaguchi K, Ito YM, Ohashi Y, Kobayashi Y, Toshikuni N, Tanaka H, Miyake Y, Matsumoto E, Shiratori Y. Sensitivity and specificity of desgamma- carboxy prothrombin for diagnosis of patients with hepatocellular carcinomas varies according to tumor size. Am J Gastroenterol 2006; 101: 2038-2043
36. Shirabe K, Itoh S, Yoshizumi T, Soejima Y, Taketomi A, Aishima S, Maehara Y. The predictors of microvascular invasion in candidates for liver transplantation with hepatocellular carcinoma-with special reference to the serum levels of des-gamma-carboxy prothrombin. J Surg Oncol 2007; 95: 235-240
37. Kim do Y, Paik YH, Ahn SH, Youn YJ, Choi JW, Kim JK, Lee KS, Chon CY, Han KH. PIVKA-II is a useful tumor marker for recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma after surgical resection. Oncology 2007; 72 Suppl 1: 52-57
38. Haydon GH, Hayes PC. Screening for hepatocellular carcinoma. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1996; 8: 856-860
39. Ishizuka H, Nakayama T, Matsuoka S, Gotoh I, Ogawa M, Suzuki K, Tanaka N, Tsubaki K, Ohkubo H, Arakawa Y, Okano T. Prediction of the development of hepato-cellularcarcinoma in patients with liver cirrhosis by the serial determinations of serum alpha-L-fucosidase activity. Intern Med 1999; 38: 927-931
40. Tangkijvanich P, Tosukhowong P, Bunyongyod P, Lertmaharit S, Hanvivatvong O, Kullavanijaya P, Poovorawan Y. Alpha-L-fucosidase as a serum marker of hepatocellular carcinoma in Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 1999; 30: 110-114
41. Wang JJ, Cao EH. Rapid kinetic rate assay of the serum alpha-L-fucosidase in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma by using a novel substrate. Clin Chim Acta 2004; 347: 103-109
42. Bukofzer S, Stass PM, Kew MC, de Beer M, Groeneveld HT. Alpha-L-fucosidase as a serum marker of hepatocellular carcinoma in southern African blacks. Br J Cancer 1989; 59: 417-420
43. Ayude D, Fernández-Rodríguez J, Rodríguez-Berrocal FJ, Martínez-Zorzano VS, de Carlos A, Gil E, Páez de La Cadena M. Value of the serum alpha-L-fucosidase activity in the diagnosis of colorectal cancer. Oncology 2000; 59: 310-316
44. Abdel-Aleem H, Ahmed A, Sabra AM, Zakhari M, Soliman M, Hamed H. Serum alpha L-fucosidase enzyme activity in ovarian and other female genital tract tumors. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1996; 55: 273-279
45. Bernfield M, Götte M, Park PW, Reizes O, Fitzgerald ML, Lincecum J, Zako M. Functions of cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans. Annu Rev Biochem 1999; 68: 729-777
46. Filmus J, Capurro M. Glypican-3 and alphafetoprotein as diagnostic tests for hepatocellular carcinoma. Mol Diagn 2004; 8: 207-212
47. Nakatsura T, Nishimura Y. Usefulness of the novel oncofetal antigen glypican-3 for diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma and melanoma. BioDrugs 2005; 19: 71-77
48. Pilia G, Hughes-Benzie RM, MacKenzie A, Baybayan P, Chen EY, Huber R, Neri G, Cao A, Forabosco A, Schlessinger D. Mutations in GPC3, a glypican gene, cause the Simpson-Golabi-Behmel overgrowth syndrome. Nat Genet 1996; 12: 241-247
49. Song HH, Shi W, Filmus J. OCI-5/rat glypican-3 binds to fibroblast growth factor-2 but not to insulin-like growth factor-2. J Biol Chem 1997; 272: 7574-7577
50. Capurro M, Wanless IR, Sherman M, Deboer G, Shi W, Miyoshi E, Filmus J. Glypican-3: a novel serum and histochemical marker for hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 2003; 125: 89-97
51. Hippo Y, Watanabe K, Watanabe A, Midorikawa Y, Yamamoto S, Ihara S, Tokita S, Iwanari H, Ito Y, Nakano K, Nezu J, Tsunoda H, Yoshino T, Ohizumi I, Tsuchiya M, Ohnishi S, Makuuchi M, Hamakubo T, Kodama T, Aburatani H. Identification of soluble NH2-terminal fragment of glypican-3 as a serological marker for earlystage hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer Res 2004; 64: 2418-2423
52. Ligato S, Mandich D, Cartun RW. Utility of glypican-3 in differentiating hepatocellular carcinoma from other primary and metastatic lesions in FNA of the liver: an immunocytochemical study. Mod Pathol 2008; 21: 626-631
53. Cheng W, Tseng CJ, Lin TT, Cheng I, Pan HW, Hsu HC, Lee YM. Glypican-3-mediated oncogenesis involves the Insulinlike growth factor-signaling pathway. Carcinogenesis 2008; 29: 1319-1326
54. Giannelli G, Fransvea E, Trerotoli P, Beaugrand M, Marinosci F, Lupo L, Nkontchou G, Dentico P, Antonaci S. Clinical validation of combined serological biomarkers for improved hepatocellular carcinoma diagnosis in 961 patients. Clin Chim Acta 2007; 383: 147-152
55. Torre GC. SCC antigen in malignant and nonmalignant squamous lesions. Tumour Biol 1998; 19: 517-526
56. Giannelli G, Marinosci F, Trerotoli P, Volpe A, Quaranta M, Dentico P, Antonaci S. SCCA antigen combined with alphafetoprotein as serologic markers of HCC. Int J Cancer 2005; 117: 506-509
57. Guido M, Roskams T, Pontisso P, Fassan M, Thung SN, Giacomelli L, Sergio A, Farinati F, Cillo U, Rugge M. Squamous cell carcinoma antigen in human liver carcinogenesis. J Clin Pathol 2008; 61: 445-447
58. Beneduce L, Castaldi F, Marino M, Tono N, Gatta A, Pontisso P, Fassina G. Improvement of liver cancer detection with simultaneous assessment of circulating levels of free alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) and AFP-IgM complexes. Int J Biol Markers 2004; 19: 155-159
59. Beneduce L, Castaldi F, Marino M, Quarta S, Ruvoletto M, Benvegnù L, Calabrese F, Gatta A, Pontisso P, Fassina G. Squamous cell carcinoma antigen-immunoglobulin M complexes as novel biomarkers for hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer 2005; 103: 2558-2565
60. Kladney RD, Bulla GA, Guo L, Mason AL, Tollefson AE, Simon DJ, Koutoubi Z, Fimmel CJ. GP73, a novel Golgilocalized protein upregulated by viral infection. Gene 2000; 249: 53-65
61. Kladney RD, Cui X, Bulla GA, Brunt EM, Fimmel CJ. Expression of GP73, a resident Golgi membrane protein, in viral and nonviral liver disease. Hepatology 2002; 35: 1431-1440
62. Marrero JA, Romano PR, Nikolaeva O, Steel L, Mehta A, Fimmel CJ, Comunale MA, D'Amelio A, Lok AS, Block TM. GP73, a resident Golgi glycoprotein, is a novel serum marker for hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2005; 43: 1007-1012
63. Hasuike S, Ido A, Uto H, Moriuchi A, Tahara Y, Numata M, Nagata K, Hori T, Hayashi K, Tsubouchi H. Hepatocyte growth factor accelerates the proliferation of hepatic oval cells and possibly promotes the differentiation in a 2-acetylaminofluorene/partial hepatectomy model in rats. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005; 20: 1753-1761
64. Jiang WG, Martin TA, Parr C, Davies G, Matsumoto K, Nakamura T. Hepatocyte growth factor, its receptor, and their potential value in cancer therapies. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2005; 53: 35-69
65. Ren Y, Cao B, Law S, Xie Y, Lee PY, Cheung L, Chen Y, Huang X, Chan HM, Zhao P, Luk J, Vande Woude G, Wong J. Hepatocyte growth factor promotes cancer cell migration and angiogenic factors expression: a prognostic marker of human esophageal squamous cell carcinomas. Clin Cancer Res 2005; 11: 6190-6197
66. Giles FJ, Vose JM, Do KA, Johnson MM, Manshouri T, Bociek G, Bierman PJ, O'Brien SM, Kantarjian HM, Armitage JO, Albitar M. Clinical relevance of circulating angiogenic factors in patients with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma or Hodgkin's lymphoma. Leuk Res 2004; 28: 595-604
67. Soeki T, Tamura Y, Shinohara H, Sakabe K, Onose Y, Fukuda N. Serum hepatocyte growth factor predicts ventricular remodeling following myocardial infarction. Circ J 2002; 66: 1003-1007
68. Matsumori A, Takano H, Obata JE, Takeda S, Tsuyuguchi N, Ono K, Okada M, Miyamoto T, Ohnishi T, Daikuhara Y, Sasayama S. Circulating hepatocyte growth factor as a diagnostic marker of thrombus formation in patients with cerebral infarction. Circ J 2002; 66: 216-218
69. Sekine K, Fujishima S, Aikawa N. Plasma hepatocyte growth factor is increased in early-phase sepsis. J Infect Chemother 2004; 10: 110-114
70. Hata N, Matsumori A, Yokoyama S, Ohba T, Shinada T, Yoshida H, Tokuyama K, Imaizumi T, Mizuno K. Hepatocyte growth factor and cardiovascular thrombosis in patients admitted to the intensive care unit. Circ J 2004; 68: 645-649
71. Yamagamim H, Moriyama M, Matsumura H, Aoki H, Shimizu T, Saito T, Kaneko M, Shioda A, Tanaka N, Arakawa Y. Serum concentrations of human hepatocyte growth factor is a useful indicator for predicting the occurrence of hepatocellular carcinomas in C-viral chronic liver diseases. Cancer 2002; 95: 824-834
72. Vejchapipat P, Tangkijvanich P, Theamboonlers A, Chongsrisawat V, Chittmittrapap S, Poovorawan Y. Association between serum hepatocyte growth factor and, survival in untreated hepatocellular carcinoma. J Gastroenterol 2004; 39: 1182-1188
73. Chau GY, Lui WY, Chi CW, Chau YP, Li AF, Kao HL, Wu CW. Significance of serum hepatocyte growth factor levels in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma undergoing hepatic resection. Eur J Surg Oncol 2008; 34: 333-338
74. Wu FS, Zheng SS, Wu LJ, Ding W, Ma ZM, Wang ZM, Teng LS, Zhao WH. [Study on the prognostic value of hepatocyte growth factor and c-met for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma] Zhonghua Waike Zazhi 2006; 44: 603-608
75. Dong ZZ, Yao DF, Zou L, Yao M, Qiu LW, Wu XH, Wu W. [An evaluation of transforming growth factor-beta 1 in diagnosing hepatocellular carcinoma and metastasis] Zhonghua Ganzangbing Zazhi 2007; 15: 503-508
76. Song BC, Chung YH, Kim JA, Choi WB, Suh DD, Pyo SI, Shin JW, Lee HC, Lee YS, Suh DJ. Transforming growth factor-beta1 as a useful serologic marker of small hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer 2002; 94: 175-180
77. Poon RT, Ho JW, Tong CS, Lau C, Ng IO, Fan ST. Prognostic significance of serum vascular endothelial growth factor and endostatin in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Br J Surg 2004; 91: 1354-1360
78. Amaoka N, Osada S, Kanematsu M, Imai H, Tomita H, Tokuyama Y, Sakashita F, Nonaka K, Goshima S, Kondo H, Adachi Y. Clinicopathological features of hepatocellular carcinoma evaluated by vascular endothelial growth factor expression. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2007; 22: 2202-2207
79. Li XM, Tang ZY, Qin LX, Zhou J, Sun HC. Serum vascular endothelial growth factor is a predictor of invasion and metastasis in hepatocellular carcinoma. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 1999; 18: 511-517
80. Huang GW, Yang LY, Lu WQ. Expression of hypoxiainducible factor 1alpha and vas cular endothelial growth factor in hepatocellular carcinoma: Impact on neovascularization and survival. World J Gastroenterol 2005; 11: 1705-1708
81. Paradis V, Degos F, Dargere D, Pham N, Belghiti J, Degott C, Janeau JL, Bezeaud A, Delforge D, Cubizolles M, Laurendeau I, Bedossa P. Identification of a new marker of hepatocellular carcinoma by serum protein profiling of patients with chronic liver diseases. Hepatology 2005; 41: 40-47
82. Zinkin NT, Grall F, Bhaskar K, Otu HH, Spentzos D, Kalmowitz B, Wells M, Guerrero M, Asara JM, Libermann TA, Afdhal NH. Serum proteomics and biomarkers in hepatocellular carcinoma and chronic liver disease. Clin Cancer Res 2008; 14: 470-477
83. Kim CK, Lim JH, Lee WJ. Detection of hepatocellular carcinomas and dysplastic nodules in cirrhotic liver: accuracy of ultrasonography in transplant patients. J Ultrasound Med 2001; 20: 99-104
84. Bruix J, Sherman M. Management of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 2005; 42: 1208-1236
85. Bruix J, Hessheimer AJ, Forner A, Boix L, Vilana R, Llovet JM. New aspects of diagnosis and therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma. Oncogene 2006; 25: 3848-3856
86. Bolondi L, Sofia S, Siringo S, Gaiani S, Casali A, Zironi G, Piscaglia F, Gramantieri L, Zanetti M, Sherman M. Surveillance programme of cirrhotic patients for early diagnosis and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: a cost effectiveness analysis. Gut 2001; 48: 251-259
87. Tong MJ, Blatt LM, Kao VW. Surveillance for hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with chronic viral hepatitis in the United States of America. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2001; 16: 553-559
88. Yu SC, Yeung DT, So NM. Imaging features of hepatocellular carcinoma. Clin Radiol 2004; 59: 145-156
89. Saar B, Kellner-Weldon F. Radiological diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma. Liver Int 2008; 28: 189-199
90. Bizollon T, Rode A, Bancel B, Gueripel V, Ducerf C, Baulieux J, Trepo C. Diagnostic value and tolerance of Lipiodol-computed tomography for the detection of small hepatocellular carcinoma: correlation with pathologic examination of explanted livers. J Hepatol 1998; 28: 491-496
91. Dodd GD 3rd, Miller WJ, Baron RL, Skolnick ML, Campbell WL. Detection of malignant tumors in end-stage cirrhotic livers: efficacy of sonography as a screening technique. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1992; 159: 727-733
92. Colli A, Fraquelli M, Casazza G, Massironi S, Colucci A, Conte D, Duca P. Accuracy of ultrasonography, spiral CT, magnetic resonance, and alpha-fetoprotein in diagnosing hepatocellular carcinoma: a systematic review. Am J Gastroenterol 2006; 101: 513-523
93. Bennett GL, Krinsky GA, Abitbol RJ, Kim SY, Theise ND, Teperman LW. Sonographic detection of hepatocellular carcinoma and dysplastic nodules in cirrhosis: correlation of pretransplantation sonography and liver explant pathology in 200 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2002; 179: 75-80
94. Tanaka K, Numata K, Okazaki H, Nakamura S, Inoue S, Takamura Y. Diagnosis of portal vein thrombosis in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma: efficacy of color Doppler sonography compared with angiography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1993; 160: 1279-1283
95. Vilana R, Bru C, Bruix J, Castells A, Sole M, Rodes J. Fine-needle aspiration biopsy of portal vein thrombus: value in detecting malignant thrombosis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1993; 160: 1285-1287
96. Albrecht T, Blomley M, Bolondi L, Claudon M, Correas JM, Cosgrove D, Greiner L, Jäger K, Jong ND, Leen E, Lencioni R, Lindsell D, Martegani A, Solbiati L, Thorelius L, Tranquart F, Weskott HP, Whittingham T. Guidelines for the use of contrast agents in ultrasound. January 2004. Ultraschall Med 2004; 25: 249-256
97. Pompili M, Riccardi L, Semeraro S, Orefice R, Elia F, Barbaro B, Covino M, Grieco A, Gasbarrini G, Rapaccini GL. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound assessment of arterial vascularization of small nodules arising in the cirrhotic liver. Dig Liver Dis 2008; 40: 206-215
98. Quaia E. Microbubble ultrasound contrast agents: an update. Eur Radiol 2007; 17: 1995-2008
99. Morin SH, Lim AK, Cobbold JF, Taylor-Robinson SD. Use of second generation contrast-enhanced ultrasound in the assessment of focal liver lesions. World J Gastroenterol 2007; 13: 5963-5970
100. Brannigan M, Burns PN, Wilson SR. Blood flow patterns in focal liver lesions at microbubble-enhanced US. Radiographics 2004; 24: 921-935
101. Cosgrove D, Blomley M. Liver tumors: evaluation with contrast-enhanced ultrasound. Abdom Imaging 2004; 29: 446-454
102. Uhlendorf V, Scholle FD, Reinhardt M. Acoustic behaviour of current ultrasound contrast agents. Ultrasonics 2000; 38: 81-86
103. Claudon M, Cosgrove D, Albrecht T, Bolondi L, Bosio M, Calliada F, Correas JM, Darge K, Dietrich C, D'Onofrio M, Evans DH, Filice C, Greiner L, Jäger K, Jong N, Leen E, Lencioni R, Lindsell D, Martegani A, Meairs S, Nolsøe C, Piscaglia F, Ricci P, Seidel G, Skjoldbye B, Solbiati L, Thorelius L, Tranquart F, Weskott HP, Whittingham T. Guidelines and good clinical practice recommendations for contrast enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) - update 2008. Ultraschall Med 2008; 29: 28-44
104. Fan ZH, Chen MH, Dai Y, Wang YB, Yan K, Wu W, Yang W, Yin SS. Evaluation of primary malignancies of the liver using contrast-enhanced sonography: correlation with pathology. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2006; 186: 1512-1519
105. Lopez Hänninen E, Vogl TJ, Bechstein WO, Guckelberger O, Neuhaus P, Lobeck H, Felix R. Biphasic spiral computed tomography for detection of hepatocellular carcinoma before resection or orthotopic liver transplantation. Invest Radiol 1998; 33: 216-221
106. Shapiro RS, Katz R, Mendelson DS, Halton KP, Schwartz ME, Miller CM. Detection of hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhotic patients: sensitivity of CT and ultrasonography. J Ultrasound Med 1996; 15: 497-502; quiz 503-504
107. Lim JH, Choi D, Kim SH, Lee SJ, Lee WJ, Lim HK, Kim S. Detection of hepatocellular carcinoma: value of adding delayed phase imaging to dual-phase helical CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2002; 179: 67-73
108. Bialecki ES, Di Bisceglie AM. Diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma. HPB (Oxford) 2005; 7: 26-34
109. Hollett MD, Jeffrey RB Jr, Nino-Murcia M, Jorgensen MJ, Harris DP. Dual-phase helical CT of the liver: value of arterial phase scans in the detection of small (< or = 1.5 cm) malignant hepatic neoplasms. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1995; 164: 879-884
110. Tublin ME, Dodd GD 3rd, Baron RL. Benign and malignant portal vein thrombosis: differentiation by CT characteristics. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997; 168: 719-723
111. Lim JH, Kim CK, Lee WJ, Park CK, Koh KC, Paik SW, Joh JW. Detection of hepatocellular carcinomas and dysplastic nodules in cirrhotic livers: accuracy of helical CT in transplant patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2000; 175: 693-698
112. Ikeda K, Saitoh S, Koida I, Tsubota A, Arase Y, Chayama K, Kumada H. Imaging diagnosis of small hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 1994; 20: 82-87
113. Ohashi I, Hanafusa K, Yoshida T. Small hepatocellular carcinomas: two-phase dynamic incremental CT in detection and evaluation. Radiology 1993; 189: 851-855
114. Kim T, Murakami T, Takahashi S, Tsuda K, Tomoda K, Narumi Y, Oi H, Sakon M, Nakamura H. Optimal phases of dynamic CT for detecting hepatocellular carcinoma: evaluation of unenhanced and triple-phase images. Abdom Imaging 1999; 24: 473-480
115. Bruix J, Sherman M, Llovet JM, Beaugrand M, Lencioni R, Burroughs AK, Christensen E, Pagliaro L, Colombo M, Rodés J. Clinical management of hepatocellular carcinoma. Conclusions of the Barcelona-2000 EASL conference. European Association for the Study of the Liver. J Hepatol 2001; 35: 421-430
116. Colagrande S, La Villa G, Bartolucci M, Lanini F, Barletta G, Villari N. Spiral computed tomography versus ultrasound in the follow-up of cirrhotic patients previously treated for hepatocellular carcinoma: a prospective study. J Hepatol 2003; 39: 93-98
117. Dai Y, Chen MH, Fan ZH, Yan K, Yin SS, Zhang XP. Diagnosis of small hepatic nodules detected by surveillance ultrasound in patients with cirrhosis: Comparison between contrast-enhanced ultrasound and contrast-enhanced helical computed tomography. Hepatol Res 2008; 38: 281-290
118. Baron RL, Brancatelli G. Computed tomographic imaging of hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 2004; 127: S133-S143
119. Murakami T, Kim T, Takahashi S, Nakamura H. Hepatocellular carcinoma: multidetector row helical CT. Abdom Imaging 2002; 27: 139-146
120. Mitsuzaki K, Yamashita Y, Ogata I, Nishiharu T, Urata J, Takahashi M. Multiple-phase helical CT of the liver for detecting small hepatomas in patients with liver cirrhosis: contrast-injection protocol and optimal timing. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1996; 167: 753-757
121. Zhao H, Yao JL, Wang Y, Zhou KR. Detection of small hepatocellular carcinoma: comparison of dynamic enhancement magnetic resonance imaging and multiphase multirow-detector helical CT scanning. World J Gastroenterol 2007; 13: 1252-1256
122. Hussain SM, Semelka RC, Mitchell DG. MR imaging of hepatocellular carcinoma. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 2002; 10: 31-52, v
123. Snowberger N, Chinnakotla S, Lepe RM, Peattie J, Goldstein R, Klintmalm GB, Davis GL. Alpha fetoprotein, ultrasound, computerized tomography and magnetic resonance imaging for detection of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with advanced cirrhosis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2007; 26: 1187-1194
124. de Lédinghen V, Laharie D, Lecesne R, Le Bail B, Winnock M, Bernard PH, Saric J, Couzigou P, Balabaud C, Bioulac-Sage P, Drouillard J. Detection of nodules in liver cirrhosis: spiral computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging? A prospective study of 88 nodules in 34 patients. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2002; 14: 159-165
125. Ebara M, Ohto M, Watanabe Y, Kimura K, Saisho H, Tsuchiya Y, Okuda K, Arimizu N, Kondo F, Ikehira H. Diagnosis of small hepatocellular carcinoma: correlation of MR imaging and tumor histologic studies. Radiology 1986; 159: 371-377
126. Grazioli L, Morana G, Caudana R, Benetti A, Portolani N, Talamini G, Colombari R, Pirovano G, Kirchin MA, Spinazzi A. Hepatocellular carcinoma: correlation between gadobenate dimeglumine-enhanced MRI and pathologic findings. Invest Radiol 2000; 35: 25-34
127. Takayasu K, Shima Y, Muramatsu Y, Goto H, Moriyama N, Yamada T, Makuuchi M, Yamasaki S, Hasegawa H, Okazaki N. Angiography of small hepatocellular carcinomas: analysis of 105 resected tumors. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1986; 147: 525-529
128. Sumida M, Ohto M, Ebara M, Kimura K, Okuda K, Hirooka N. Accuracy of angiography in the diagnosis of small hepatocellular carcinoma. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1986; 147: 531-536
129. França A, Giordano H, Trevisan M, Escanhoela C, Seva-Pereira T, Zucoloto S, Martinelli A, Soares E. Fine needle aspiration biopsy improves the diagnostic accuracy of cut needle biopsy of focal liver lesions. Acta Cytologica 2003; 47: 332-336
130. Ding W, He XJ. Fine needle aspiration cytology in the diagnosis of liver lesions. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int 2004; 3: 90-92
131. Bravo AA, Sheth SG, Chopra S. Liver biopsy. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 495-500
132. Caselitz M, Masche N, Bleck JS, Gebel M, Atay Z, Stern C, Manns MP, Kubicka S. Increasing sensitivity of morphological diagnosis in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) by combination of cytological and fine-needle histological examination after ultrasound guided fine needle biopsy. Z Gastroenterol 2003; 41: 559-564
133. Pitman MB. Fine needle aspiration biopsy of the liver. Principal diagnostic challenges. Clin Lab Med 1998; 18: 483-506, vi
134. Robbins S, Kumar V. Basic pathology. 4th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1987: 598
135. Talwalkar JA, Gores GJ. Diagnosis and staging of hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 2004; 127: S126-S132
136. Bru C, Maroto A, Bruix J, Faus R, Bianchi L, Calvet X, Ayuso C, Vilana R, Gilabert R, Rodés J. Diagnostic accuracy of fine-needle aspiration biopsy in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Dig Dis Sci 1989; 34: 1765-1769
137. Longchampt E, Patriarche C, Fabre M. Accuracy of cytology vs. microbiopsy for the diagnosis of well-differentiated hepatocellular carcinoma and macroregenerative nodule. Definition of standardized criteria from a study of 100 cases. Acta Cytol 2000; 44: 515-523
138. Huang GT, Sheu JC, Yang PM, Lee HS, Wang TH, Chen DS. Ultrasound-guided cutting biopsy for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma - a study based on 420 patients. J Hepatol 1996; 25: 334-338
139. Durand F, Regimbeau JM, Belghiti J, Sauvanet A, Vilgrain V, Terris B, Moutardier V, Farges O, Valla D. Assessment of the benefits and risks of percutaneous biopsy before surgical resection of hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2001; 35: 254-258
140. Takamori R, Wong LL, Dang C, Wong L. Needle-tract implantation from hepatocellular cancer: is needle biopsy of the liver always necessary? Liver Transpl 2000; 6: 67-72
141. El-Serag HB. Hepatocellular carcinoma: an epidemiologic view. J Clin Gastroenterol 2002; 35: S72-S78
142. Llovet JM, Burroughs A, Bruix J. Hepatocellular carcinoma. Lancet 2003; 362: 1907-1917
143. Nakashima T, Kojiro M. Pathologic characteristics of hepatocellular carcinoma. Semin Liver Dis 1986; 6: 259-266
144. Chang S, Kim SH, Lim HK, Kim SH, Lee WJ, Choi D, Kim YS, Rhim H. Needle tract implantation after percutaneous interventional procedures in hepatocellular carcinomas: lessons learned from a 10-year experience. Korean J Radiol 2008; 9: 268-274