GSH and analogs in antiviral therapy

Molecular Aspects of Medicine

Volumn 30, Issue 1-2, 2009, Pages 99-110

  Fraternale, Alessandra ^a   Paoletti, Maria Filomena ^a   Casabianca, Anna ^a   Nencioni, Lucia ^b   Garaci, Enrico ^c   Palamara, Anna Teresa ^b   Magnani, Mauro ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF URBINO   (Italy)

^b SAPIENZA UNIVERSITY OF ROME   (Italy)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ROME TOR VERGATA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Antiviral drugs; Oxidative stress; Pro GSH molecules; Reduced glutathione (GSH); Th1 Th2 response; Viral infections

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCYSTEINE; ALPHA INTERFERON; ANTIOXIDANT; AZATHIOPRINE; ELECTROPHILE; GLUTATHIONE; GLUTATHIONE DERIVATIVE; GLUTATHIONE DISULFIDE; GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE; GLUTATHIONE TRANSFERASE; HEPATITIS B VACCINE; I 152; PEROXIDE; PROTEIN; THIOL; TRANSFERASE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

AGING; ANTIVIRAL ACTIVITY; ANTIVIRAL THERAPY; ARTHRALGIA; CATALYSIS; CELL DEGENERATION; CELL LEVEL; CELL MATURATION; CELL MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY; CELL MOTION; CYSTIC FIBROSIS; DEGENERATIVE DISEASE; DETOXIFICATION; DNA VIRUS; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG PENETRATION; HEADACHE; HEPATITIS B; HEPATITIS VIRUS; HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNE DEFICIENCY; INFLUENZA VIRUS; MYALGIA; NEOPLASM; NONHUMAN; PARAINFLUENZA VIRUS; PATHOGENESIS; REVIEW; RHINOVIRUS; RHINOVIRUS INFECTION; RISK; RNA VIRUS; STEM CELL; SYNTHESIS; VIRUS INFECTION; VIRUS INHIBITION;

ANIMALS; ANTIVIRAL AGENTS; GLUTATHIONE; GLUTATHIONE DISULFIDE; HUMANS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; OXIDATION-REDUCTION; OXIDATIVE STRESS;

ANIMALIA; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1;

EID: 65049087366     PISSN: 00982997     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2008.09.001     Document Type: Review

References (84)

1. Abdalla M.Y., Ahmad I.M., Spitz D.R., Schmidt W.N., and Britigan B.E. Hepatitis C virus-core and non structural proteins lead to different effects on cellular antioxidant defenses. J. Med. Virol. 76 4 (2005) 489-497
2. Akerlund B., Jarstrand C., Lindeke B., Sönnerborg A., Akerblad A.C., and Rasool O. Effect of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) treatment on HIV-1 infection: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 50 6 (1996) 457-461
3. Aukrust P., Müller F., Svardal A.M., Ueland T., Berge R.K., and Frøland S.S. Disturbed glutathione metabolism and decreased antioxidant levels in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients during highly active antiretroviral therapy - potential immunomodulatory effects of antioxidants. J. Infect. Dis. 188 2 (2003) 232-238
4. Baliga R.S., Liu C., Hoyt D.G., Chaves A.A., and Bauer J.A. Vascular endothelial toxicity induced by HIV protease inhibitor: evidence of oxidant-related dysfunction and apoptosis. Cardiovasc. Toxicol. 4 2 (2004) 199-206
5. Barbaro G., Di Lorenzo G., Soldini M., Parrotto S., Bellomo G., Belloni G., Grisorio B., and Barbarini G. Hepatic glutathione deficiency in chronic hepatitis C: quantitative evaluation in patients who are HIV positive and HIV negative and correlations with plasmatic and lymphocytic concentrations and with the activity of the liver disease. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 91 12 (1996) 2569-2573
6. Beck M.A., Handy J., and Levander O.A. The role of oxidative stress in viral infections. Ann. N Y Acad. Sci. 917 (2000) 906-912
7. Beloqui O., Prieto J., Suárez M., Gil B., Qian C.H., García N., and Civeira M.P. N-acetyl cysteine enhances the response to interferon-alpha in chronic hepatitis C: a pilot study. J. Interferon Res. 13 4 (1993) 279-282
8. Beyer C.F., Hill J.M., Reidy J.J., and Beuerman R.W. Corneal nerve disruption reactivates virus in rabbits latently infected with HSV-1. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 31 5 (1990) 925-932
9. Buhl R., Jaffe H.A., Holroyd K.J., Wells F.B., Mastrangeli A., Saltini C., Cantin A.M., and Crystal R.G. Systemic glutathione deficiency in symptom-free HIV-seropositive individuals. Lancet 2 8675 (1989) 1294-1298
10. Cai J., Chen Y., Seth S., Furukawa S., Compans R.W., and Jones D.P. Inhibition of influenza infection by glutathione. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 34 7 (2003) 928-936
11. Casabianca A., Orlandi C., Fraternale A., and Magnani M. Development of a real-time PCR assay using SYBR Green I for provirus load quantification in a murine model of AIDS. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42 9 (2004) 4361-4364
12. Cerny A., and Chisari F.V. Pathogenesis of chronic hepatitis C: immunological features of hepatic injury and viral persistence. Hepatology 30 3 (1999) 595-601
13. Chen L.H., Xi S., and Cohen D.A. Liver endogenous antioxidant defenses in mice fed AIN-76A diet and infected with murine AIDS. Chem. Biol. Interact. 99 1-3 (1996) 17-28
14. Choi J., Forman H.J., Ou J.H., Lai M.M., Seronello S., and Nandipati A. Redox modulation of the hepatitis C virus replication complex is calcium dependent. Free Radic. Biol. Chem. 41 9 (2006) 1488-1498
15. Choi J., Lee K.G., Zheng Y., Yamaga A.K., Lai M.M.C., and Ou J.H. Reactive oxygen species suppress hepatitis C virus RNA replication in human hepatoma cells. Hepatology 39 1 (2004) 81-89
16. Choi J., Liu R.M., Kundu R.K., Sangiorgi F., Wu W., Maxson R., and Forman H.J. Molecular mechanism of decreased glutathione content in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Tat-transgenic mice. J. Biol. Chem. 275 5 (2000) 3693-3698
17. Cimino L., Belisario M.A., Intrieri M., D'Ascoli B., Sacchetti L., Salvatore F., and Budillon G. Effect of N-acetyl-cysteine on lymphomonocyte glutathione and response to interferon treatment in C-virus chronic hepatitis. Ital. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 30 2 (1998) 189-193
18. Ciriolo M.R., Palamara A.T., Incerpi S., Lafavia E., Buè M.C., De Vito P., Garaci E., and Rotilio G. Loss of GSH, oxidative stress, and decrease of intracellular pH as sequential steps in viral infection. J. Biol. Chem. 272 5 (1997) 2700-2708
19. Crumpacker C.S., Schnipper L.E., Kowalsky P.N., and Sherman D.M. Resistance of herpes simplex virus to adenine arabinoside and E-5-(2-bromovinyl)-2′-deoxyuridine: a physical analysis. J. Infect. Dis. 146 2 (1982) 167-172
20. Czeczot H., Scibior D., Skrzycki M., and Podsiad M. Glutathione and GSH-dependent enzymes in patients with liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Acta Biochim. Pol. 53 1 (2006) 237-242
21. De Flora S., Balansky R., Bennicelli C., Camoirano A., D'Agostini F., Izzotti A., and Cesarone C.F. Mechanisms of anticarcinogenesis: the example of N-acetylcysteine. In: Ioannides C., and Lewis D.F.V. (Eds). Drugs, Diet and Disease. Mechanistic Approaches to Cancer vol. 1 (1995), Ellis Horwood, Hernel Hempstead 151-203
22. De Flora S., Grassi C., and Carati L. Attenuation of influenza-like symptomatology and improvement of cell-mediated immunity with long-term N-acetylcysteine treatment. Eur. Respir. J. 10 7 (1997) 1535-1541
23. De Rosa S.C., Zaretsky M.D., Dubs J.G., Roederer M., Anderson M., Green A., Mitra D., Watanabe N., Nakamura H., Tjio I., Deresinski S.C., Moore W.A., Ela S.W., Parks D., Herzenberg L.A., and Herzenberg L.A. N-acetylcysteine replenishes glutathione in HIV infection. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 30 10 (2000) 915-929
24. De Vries N., and De Flora S. N-acetyl-l-cysteine. J. Cell. Biochem. Suppl. 17 F:S (1993) 270-277
25. Dias A.S., Bester M.J., Britz R.F., and Apostolides Z. Animal models used for the evaluation of antiretroviral therapies. Curr. HIV Res. 4 4 (2006) 431-446
26. Feng J.Y., Johnson A.A., Johnson K.A., and Anderson K.S. Insights into the molecular mechanism of mitochondrial toxicity by AIDS drugs. J. Biol. Chem. 276 26 (2001) 23832-23837
27. Fraternale A., Paoletti M.F., Casabianca A., Orlandi C., Schiavano G.F., Chiarantini L., Clayette P., Oiry J., Vogel J.U., Cinatl J.Jr., and Magnani M. Inhibition of murine AIDS by pro-glutathione (GSH) molecules. Antiviral Res. 77 2 (2008) 120-127
28. Fried M.W., Shiffman M.L., Reddy K.R., Smith C., Marinos G., Goncales F.L.Jr., Häussinger D., Diago M., Carosi G., Dhumeaux D., Craxi A., Lin A., Hoffman J., and Yu J. Peginterferon alfa-2a plus ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 347 13 (2002) 975-982
29. Garaci E., Palamara A.T., Ciriolo M.R., D'Agostini C., Abdel-Latif M.S., Aquaro S., Lafavia E., and Rotilio G. Intracellular GSH content and HIV replication in human macrophages. J. Leukoc. Biol. 62 1 (1997) 54-59
30. Garaci E., Palamara A.T., Di Francesco P., Favalli C., Ciriolo M.R., and Rotilio G. Glutathione inhibits replication and expression of viral proteins in cultured cells infected with Sendai virus. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 188 3 (1992) 1090-1096
31. Gil L., Martínez G., González I., Tarinas A., Alvarez A., Giuliani A., Molina R., Tápanes R., Pérez J., and León O.S. Contribution to characterization of oxidative stress in HIV/AIDS patients. Pharmacol. Res. 47 3 (2003) 217-224
32. Gregory S., and Kelly N.D. Clinical applications of N-acetylcysteine. Alternative Med. Rev. 3 2 (1998) 114-127
33. Harakeh S., Jariwalla R.J., and Pauling L. Suppression of human immunodeficiency virus replication by ascorbate in chronically and acutely infected cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87 18 (1990) 7245-7249
34. Helbling B., von Overbeck J., and Lauterburg B.H. Decreased release of glutathione into the systemic circulation of patients with HIV infection. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 26 1 (1996) 38-44
35. Herold B.C., Scordi-Bello I., Cheshenko N., Marcellino D., Dzuzelewski M., Francois F., Morin R., Casullo V.M., Anderson R.A., Chany II C., Waller D.P., Zaneveld L.J., and Klotman M.E. Mandelic acid condensation polymer: novel candidate microbicide for prevention of human immunodeficiency virus and herpes simplex virus entry. J. Virol. 76 22 (2002) 11236-11244
36. Herzenberg L.A., De Rosa S.C., Dubs J.G., Roederer M., Anderson M.T., Ela S.W., Deresinski S.C., and Herzenberg L.A. Glutathione deficiency is associated with impaired survival in HIV disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94 5 (1997) 1967-1972
37. Houglum K., Venkataramani A., Lyche K., and Chojkier M. A pilot study of the effects of d-alpha-tocopherol on hepatic stellate cell activation in chronic hepatitis C. Gastroenterology 113 4 (1997) 1069-1073
38. Kalebic T., Kinter A., Poli G., Anderson M.E., Meister A., and Fauci A.S. Suppression of human immunodeficiency virus expression in chronically infected monocytic cells by glutathione, glutahione ester, and N-acetylcysteine. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88 3 (1991) 986-990
39. Kameoka M., Okada Y., Tobiume M., Kimura T., and Ikuta K. Intracelluar glutathione as a possible direct blocker of HIV type 1 reverse transcription. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 12 17 (1996) 1635-1638
40. Kim H.J., Barajas B., Chan R.C., and Nel A.E. Glutathione depletion inhibits dendritic cell maturation and delayed-type hypersensivity: implications for systemic disease and immunosenescense. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 119 5 (2007) 1225-1233
41. Korenaga M., Wang T., Li Y., Showalter L.A., Chan T., Sun J., and Weinman S.A. Hepatitis C virus core protein inhibits mitochondrial electron transport and increases reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. J. Biol. Chem. 280 45 (2005) 37481-37488
42. Lamb R.A., and Krug R.M. Orthomyxoviridiae: the viruses and their replication. In: Knipe D.M., and Howley P.M. (Eds). Fields Virology. fourth ed. (2001), Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia 1487-1531
43. Leonard C.K., Spellman M.W., Riddle L., Harris R.J., Thomas J.N., and Gregory T.J. Assignment of intrachain disulfide bonds and characterization of potential glycosylation sites of the type 1 recombinant human immunodeficiency virus envelope glycoprotein (gp120) expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells. J. Biol. Chem. 265 18 (1990) 10373-10382
44. Lieber C.S. Role of oxidative stress and antioxidant therapy in alcoholic and nonalcoholic liver diseases. Adv. Pharmacol. 38 (1997) 601-628
45. Macchia I., Palamara A.T., Buè C., Savini P., Ciriolo M., Graziano R., and di Francesco P. Increased replication of Sendai virus in morphine-treated epithelial cells: evidence for the involvement of the intracellular levels of glutathione. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 21 3 (1999) 185-193
46. Magnani M., Fraternale A., Casabianca A., Schiavano G.F., Chiarantini L., Palamara A.T., Ciriolo M.R., Rotilio G., and Garaci E. Antiretroviral effect of combined zidovudine and reduced glutathione therapy in murine AIDS. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 13 13 (1997) 1093-1099
47. Magnani M., Novelli G., and Palloni R. Human plasma glutathione oxidation in normal and pathological conditions. Clin. Physiol. Biochem. 2 6 (1984) 287-290
48. Matthias L.J., Yam P.T., Jiang X.M., Vandegraaff N., Li P., Poumbourios P., Donoghue N., and Hogg P.J. Disulfide exchange in domain 2 of CD4 is required for entry of HIV-1. Nat. Immunol. 3 8 (2002) 727-732
49. Meister A. Metabolism and function of glutathione. In: Dolphin D., Poulson R., and Avramovich O. (Eds). Glutathione. Chemical, Biochemical and Medical Aspects, Part A (1989), Wiley, New York 367-374
50. Mortola E., Okuda M., Ohno K., Watari T., Tsujimoto H., and Hasegawa A. Inhibition of apoptosis and virus replication in feline immunodeficiency virus-infected cells by N-acetylcysteine and ascorbic acid. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 60 11 (1998) 1187-1193
51. Murata Y., Amao M., Yoneda J., and Hamuro J. Intracellular thiol redox status of macrophages directs the Th1 skewing in thioredoxin transgenic mice during aging. Mol. Immunol. 38 10 (2002) 747-757
52. Murata Y., Shimamura T., and Hamuro J. The polarization of T(h)1/T(h)2 balance is dependent on the intracellular thiol redox status of macrophages due to the distinctive cytokine production. Int. Immunol. 14 2 (2002) 201-212
53. Nakamura H., Masutani H., and Yodoi J. Redox imbalance and its control in HIV infection. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 4 3 (2002) 455-464
54. Nakata K., Kawase M., Ogino S., Kinoshita C., Murata H., Sakaue T., Ogata K., and Ohmori S. Effects of age on levels of cysteine, glutathione and related enzyme activities in livers of mice and rats and an attempt to replenish hepatic glutathione level of mouse with cysteine derivatives. Mech. Ageing Dev. 90 3 (1996) 195-207
55. Nencioni L., Iuvara A., Aquilano K., Ciriolo M.R., Cozzolino F., Rotilio G., Garaci E., and Palamara A.T. Influenza A virus replication is dependent on an antioxidant pathway that involves GSH and Bcl-2. FASEB J. 17 6 (2003) 758-760
56. Neri S., Ierna D., Antoci S., Campanile E., D'Amico R.A., and Noto R. Association of alpha-interferon and acetyl cysteine in patients with chronic C hepatitis. Panminerva Med. 42 3 (2000) 187-192
57. Nucci C., Palamara A.T., Ciriolo M.R., Nencioni L., Savini P., D'Agostini C., Rotilio G., Cerulli L., and Garaci E. Imbalance in corneal redox state during herpes simplex virus 1-induced keratitis in rabbits. Effectiveness of exogenous glutathione supply. Exp. Eye Res. 70 2 (2000) 215-220
58. Oiry J., Mialocq P., Puy J.Y., Fretier P., Dereuddre-Bosquet N., Dormont D., Imbach J.L., and Clayette P. Synthesis and biological evaluation in human monocyte-derived macrophages of N-(N-acetyl-l-cysteinyl)-S-acetylcysteamine analogues with potent antioxidant and anti-HIV activities. J. Med. Chem. 47 7 (2004) 1789-1795
59. Okuda M., Li K., Beard M.R., Showalter L.A., Scholle F., Lemon S.M., and Weinman S.A. Mitochondrial injury, oxidative stress, and antioxidant gene expression are induced by hepatitis C virus core protein. Gastroenterology 122 2 (2002) 366-375
60. Opii W.O., Sultana R., Abdul H.M., Ansari M.A., Nath A., and Butterfield D.A. Oxidative stress and toxicity induced by the nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI)-2′,3′-dideoxycytidine (ddC): relevance to HIV-dementia. Exp. Neurol. 204 1 (2007) 29-38
61. Ouedraogo A., Nagot N., Vergne L., Konate I., Weiss H.A., Defer M.C., Foulongne V., Sanon A., Andonaba J.B., Segondy M., Mayaud P., and Van de Perre P. Impact of suppressive herpes therapy on genital HIV-1 RNA among women taking antiretroviral therapy: a randomized controlled trial. AIDS 20 18 (2006) 2305-2313
62. Palamara A.T., Brandi G., Rossi L., Millo E., Benatti U., Nencioni L., Iuvara A., Garaci E., and Magnani M. New synthetic glutathione derivatives with increased antiviral activities. Antiviral Chem. Chemother. 15 2 (2004) 83-91
63. Palamara A.T., Di Francesco P., Ciriolo M.R., Buè C., Lafavia E., Rotilio G., and Garaci E. Cocaine increases Sendai virus replication in cultured epithelial cells: critical role of the intracellular redox status. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 228 2 (1996) 579-585
64. Palamara A.T., Garaci E., Rotilio G., Ciriolo M.R., Casabianca A., Fraternale A., Rossi L., Schiavano G.F., Chiarantini L., and Magnani M. Inhibition of murine AIDS by reduced glutathione. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 12 14 (1996) 1373-1381
65. Palamara A.T., Perno C.F., Aquaro S., Buè M.C., Dini L., and Garaci E. Glutathione inhibits HIV replication by acting at late stages of the virus life cycle. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 12 16 (1996) 1537-1541
66. Palamara A.T., Perno C.F., Ciriolo M.R., Dini L., Balestra E., D'Agostini C., Di Francesco P., Favalli C., Rotilio G., and Garaci E. Evidence for antiviral activity of glutathione: in vitro inhibition of herpes simplex virus type 1 replication. Antiviral Res. 27 3 (1995) 237-253
67. Papi A., and Johnston S.L. Respiratory epithelial cell expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 and its up-regulation by rhinovirus infection via NF-kappaB and GATA transcription factors. J. Biol. Chem. 274 42 (1999) 30041-30051
68. Papi A., Papadopoulos N.G., Stanciu L.A., Bellettato C.M., Pinamonti S., Degitz K., Holgate S.T., and Johnston S.L. Reducing agents inhibit rhinovirus-induced up-regulation of the rhinovirus receptor intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in respiratory epithelial cells. FASEB J. 16 14 (2002) 1934-1936
69. Peterson J.D., Herzenberg L.A., Vasquez K., and Waltebaugh C. Glutathione levels in antigen-presenting cells modulate Th1 versus Th2 response patterns. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95 6 (1998) 3071-3076
70. Poli G., Bressler P., Kinter A., Duh E., Timmer W.C., Rabson A., Justement J.S., Stanley S., and Fauci A.S. Interleukin 6 induces human immunodeficiency virus expression in infected monocytic cells alone and in synergy with tumor necrosis factor alpha by transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanism. J. Exp. Med. 172 1 (1990) 151-158
71. Price T.O., Ercal N., Nakaoke R., and Banks W.A. HIV-1 viral proteins gp 120 and Tat induce oxidative stress in brain endothelial cells. Brain Res. 1045 1-2 (2005) 57-63
72. Price T.O., Uras F., Banks W.A., and Ercal N. A novel antioxidant N-acetylcysteine amide prevents gp120- and Tat-induced oxidative stress in brain endothelial cells. Exp. Neurol. 201 1 (2006) 193-202
73. Roberts R.L., Aroda V.R., and Ank B.J. N-acetylcysteine enhances antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity in neutrophils and mononuclear cells from healthy adults and human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. J. Infect. Dis. 172 69 (1995) 1492-1502
74. Rong B.L., Libermann T.A., Kogawa K., Ghosh S., Cao L.-X., Pavan-Langston D., and Dunkel E.C. HSV-1-inducible proteins bind to NF-kB-like sites in the HSV-1 genome. Virol. 189 2 (1992) 750-756
75. Short S., Merkel B.J., Caffrey R., and McCoy K.L. Defective antigen processing correlates with a low level of intracellular glutathione. Eur. J. Immunol. 26 12 (1996) 3015-3020
76. Staal F.J., Roederer M., Herzenberg L.A., and Herzenberg L.A. Intracellular thiols regulate activation of nuclear factor kappa B and transcription of human immunodeficiency virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87 24 (1990) 9943-9947
77. Stevens M., Pannecouque C., De Clercq E., and Balzarini J. Pyridine N-oxide derivatives inhibit viral transactivation by interfering with NF-kappaB binding. Biochem. Pharmacol. 71 8 (2006) 1122-1135
78. Tatu U., Hammond C., and Helenius A. Folding and oligomerization of influenza hemagglutinin in the ER and the intermediate compartment. EMBO J. 14 7 (1995) 1340-1348
79. Vogel J.-U., Cinatl J., Dauletbaev N., Buxbaum S., Treusch G., Cinatl J.Jr., Gerein V., and Doerr H.W. Effects of S-acetylglutathione in cell and animal model of herpes simplex virus type 1 infection. Med. Microbiol. Immunol. 194 1-2 (2005) 55-59
80. Waris G., Turkson J., Hassanein T., and Siddiqui A. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) constitutively activates STAT-3 via oxidative stress: role of STAT-3 in HCV replication. J. Virol. 79 3 (2005) 1569-1580
81. Westendorp M.O., Shatrov V.A., Schulze-Osthoff K., Frank R., Kraft M., Los M., Krammer P.H., Dröge W., and Lehmann V. HIV-1 Tat potentiates TNF-induced NF-kappa B activation and cytotoxicity by altering the cellular redox state. EMBO J. 14 3 (1995) 546-554
82. Yamaguchi T., Katoh I., and Kurata S. Azidothymidine causes functional and structural destruction of mitochondria, glutathione deficiency and HIV-1 promoter sensitization. Eur. J. Biochem. 269 11 (2002) 2782-2788
83. Zheng Y.W., and Yen T.S.B. Negative regulation of hepatitis B virus gene expression and replication of oxidative stress. J. Biol. Chem. 269 12 (1994) 8857-8862
84. Zuckerman R.A., Lucchetti A., Whittington W.L., Sanchez J., Coombs R.W., Zuñiga R., Magaret A.S., Wald A., Corey L., and Celum C. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) suppression with valacyclovir reduces rectal and blood plasma HIV-1 levels in HIV-1/HSV-2-seropositive men: a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled crossover trial. J. Infect. Dis. 196 10 (2007) 1500-1508