Morphofunctional organization of reserve stem cells providing for asexual and sexual reproduction of invertebrates

Russian Journal of Developmental Biology

Volumn 40, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 57-68

  Isaeva, V V ^a,b   Akhmadieva, A V ^a   Aleksandrova, Ya N ^a   Shukalyuk, A I ^a  

^a INSTITUTE OF MARINE BIOLOGY   (Russian Federation)

^b SEVERTSOV INSTITUTE OF ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION   (Russian Federation)

Author keywords

Asexual reproduction; Germinal granules; Stem cells; Vasa gene

Indexed keywords

ANIMALIA; ARTHROPODA; ASCIDIA; ASCIDIACEA; BOTRYLLUS TUBERATUS; CHORDATA; CNIDARIA; COELENTERATA; GIRARDIA TIGRINA; HYDROIDA; INVERTEBRATA; METAZOA; OBELIA LONGISSIMA; OSCARELLA; PELTOGASTERELLA GRACILIS; PLANARIA; POLYASCUS POLYGENEA; PORIFERA; THYLACOPLETHUS ISAEVAE; TURBELLARIA; VERTEBRATA;

EID: 64249115775     PISSN: 10623604     EISSN: 16083326     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1134/S1062360409020015     Document Type: Review

References (145)

1. K. Agata K. Watanabe 1999 Molecular and Cellular Aspects of Planarian Regeneration Cell Devel. Biol. 10 377 383
2. Aizenshtadt, T.B., Tsitologiya oogeneza (Cytology of Oogenesis), Moscow: Nauka, 1984.
3. Akhmadieva, A.V., Morphofunctional Study of Stem Cells in Invertebrates with Reproductive Strategy Including a Sexual Reproduction, Extended Abstract of Cand. Sci. (Biol.) Dissertation, Vladivostok: Institut biologii morya, 2008.
4. A.V. Akhmadieva A.I. Shulalyuk V.V. Isaeva 2005 Interstitial Cells in Reproductive Strategy of Colonial Hydroid Obelia longissima Mol. Biol. Cell. 16 11suppl. 752a
5. A.V. Akhmadieva A.I. Shukalyuk Ya.N. Aleksandrova V.V. Isaeva 2007 Stem Cells in Asexual Reproduction of Colonial Ascidian Botryllus tuberatus, Biol. Morya 33 2 134 137
6. R. Amikura M. Kashikawa A. Nakamura S. Kobayashi 2001 Presence of Mitochondria-Ribosomes Outside Mitochondria in Germ Plasm of Drosophila Embryos Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98 9133 9138
7. C. Auladell J. Garcia-Valero J. Baguna 1993 Ultrastructural Localization of RNA in the Chromatoid Bodies of Undifferentiated Cells (Neoblasts) in Planarians by the RNAse-Gold Complex Technique J. Morphol. 216 319 326
8. H.W. Beams R.G. Kessel 1974 The Problem of Germ Cell Determinants Int. Rev. Cytol. 39 413 479
9. Berrill, N.J., Growth, Development, and Pattern, San Francisco: Freeman, 1961.
10. H.R. Bode 1996 The Interstitial Cell Lineage of Hydra: a Stem Cell System That Arose Early in Evolution J. Cell Sci. 109 1155 1164
11. F.D. Brown B.J. Swalla 2007 Vasa Expression in a Colonial Ascidians Botrylloides violaceus Evol. Devel. 9 165 177
12. Burighel, P. and Cloney, R.A., Urochordata: Ascidiacea, in Microscopic Anatomy of Invertebrates. Vol. 15, Harrison, F.W. and Ruppert, E.E., Eds., New York: Wiley-Liss, 1997.
13. L.W. Buss 1999 Slime Molds, Ascidians and the Utility of Evolutionary Theory Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96 8801 8803
14. Campbell, R.D., Cnidaria, in Reproduction of Marine Invertebrates. Vol. 1, Giese, A.C. and Pierse, J.S., Eds., New York: Academic, 1974.
15. D. Carre C. Djediat C. Sardet 2002 Formation of a Large Vasa-Positive Germ Granules and Its Inheritance by Germ Cells in the Enigmatic Chaetognaths Development 129 661 670
16. D.H. Castrillon B.J. Quade T.Y. Wang 2000 The Human VASA Gene Is Specifically Expressed in the Germ Cell Lineage Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97 9585 9590
17. C.-C. Chang W.-C. Lee C.E. Cook 2006 Germplasm Specification and Germline Development in the Parthenogenetic Pea Aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum: Vasa and Nanos as Markers Int. J. Devel. Biol. 50 413 421
18. A.D. Chiquoine 1954 The Identification, Origin and Migration of the Primordial Germ Cells of the Mouse Embryo Anat. Rec. 118 135 146
19. F. Cima A. Perin P. Burighel L. Ballarin 2001 Morpho-Functional Characterization of Hemocytes of the Compound Ascidian Botrylloides leachi (Tunicata, Ascidiacea) Acta Zool 3 432 442
20. A.G. Collins J.W. Valentine 2001 Defining Phyla: Evolutionary Pathways to Metazoan Body Plan Evol. Devel. 3 432 442
21. L.S. Corley M.A. White M.R. Strand 2005 Both Eondogenous and Environmental Factors Affect Embryo Proliferation in the Polyembryonic Wasp Copidosoma floridanum Evol. Devel. 3 432 442
22. G.Q. Daley 2007 Gametes from Embryonic Stem Cells: a Cup Half Empty or Half Full? Science 316 409 410
23. E.H. Davidson 1991 Spatial Mechanisms of Gene Regulation in Metazoan Embryos Development 113 1 26
24. E.H. Davidson K.J. Peterson R.A. Cameron 1995 Origin of Bilaterian Body Plan: Evolution of Developmental Regulatory Mechanisms Science 270 1319 1325
25. Developmental Biology Glossary, ( http://home.sandiego.edu/bio176/gloss. html ).
26. D. Ding H.D. Lipshitz 1993 Localized RNAs and Their Functions BioEssays 15 651 658
27. D. Ding H.D. Lipshitz 1993 A Molecular Screen for Polar Localized Maternal RNAs in the Early Embryo of Drosophila Zygote 1 257 271
28. D.M. Donnell L.S. Corley G. Chen M.R. Strand 2004 Caste Determination in a Polyembric Wasp Involves Inheritance of Germ Cells Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101 10095 10100
29. E.M. Eddy 1975 Germ Plasm and the Differentiation of the Germ Cell Line Int. Rev. Cytol. 43 229 280
30. Erescovsky, A.V., A New Species of Oscarella (Demospongiae: Plakinidae) from the Western Sea of Japan, Zootaxa, 2006, no. 1376, pp. 37-51.
31. C.G. Extavour 2005 The Fate of Isolated Blastomeres with Respect to Germ Cells Formation in the Amphipod Crustacean Parhyale hawaiensis Devel. Biol. 277 387 402
32. C.G. Extavour M. Akam 2003 Mechanisms of Germ Cell Specification across the Metazoans: Epigenesis and Preformation Development 130 5869 5884
33. C.G. Extavour K. Pang D.Q. Matus M.Q. Martindale 2005 Vasa and Nanos Expression Patterns in a Sea Anemone and the Evolution of Bilaterian Germ Cell Specification Mechanisms Evol. Devel. 7 201 215
34. M. Fujimura K. Takamura 2000 Characterization of an Ascidian Dead Box Gene, CI-Dead One: Specific Expression in the Germ Cells and Its mRNA Localization in the Posterior Most Blastomeres in Early Embryos Devel. Genes Evol. 210 64 72
35. Gilbert, S.F., Developmental biology, Sunderland: Sinauer Ass., 2006.
36. Glossary of Stem Cell-Related Terms, Int. Soc. Stem Cell Res., ( http://www.isscr.org/glossary ).
37. R. Gschwentner P. Ladurner K. Nimeth R. Rieger 2001 Stem Cells in a Basal Bilaterian. S-Phase and Mitotic Cells in Convolutriloba longifissura Cell Tiss. Res. 304 401 408
38. P.A. Hall A.L. Woods 1990 Immunohistochemical Markers of Cellular Proliferation: Achievements, Problems and Prospects Cell Tiss. Kinet. 23 23 55
39. B. Hay L.Y. Jan Y.N. Jan 1988 A Protein Component of Drosophila Polar Granules Is Encoded by Vasa and Has Extensive Sequence Similarity to ATP Dependent Helicases Cell 55 577 587
40. K. Hayashi S.M.C. de Sousa Lopes M.A. Surani 2007 Germ Cell Specification in Mice Science 316 394 396
41. J.T. Høeg J. Lützen 1995 Life Cycle and Reproduction in the Cirripedia rhizocephala Ocean. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev. 33 427 485
42. Hogan, B., Primordial Germ Cells as Stem Cells, in Stem Cell Biology, Marshak, D.R. et al., Eds., New York: Cold Spring Harbor Lab., 2001.
43. T.G. Honegger D. Zurrer P. Tardent 1989 Oogenesis in Hydra carnea: A New Model Based on Light and Electron Microscopic Analyses of Oocyte and Nurse Cell Differentiation Tiss.Cell. 21 381 393
44. Y. Hong C. Winkler M. Schartl 1998 Production of Medakafish Chimeras from a Stable Embryonic Stem Cell Line Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95 3679 3684
45. I. Hori 1982 An Ultrastructural Study of the Chromatoid Body in Planarian Regenerative Cells J. Electr. Microsc. 31 63 72
46. D.W. Houston M.L. King 2000 Germ Plasm and Molecular Determinants of Germ Cell Fate Curr. Top. Devel. Biol. 50 155 181
47. K. Hubner G. Fuhrmann L. Christenson 2003 Derivation of Oocytes from Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells Science 300 1251 1256
48. T. Iida S. Kobayashi 1998 Essential Role of Mitochondrially Encoded Large rRNA for Germline Formation in Drosophila Embryos Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95 11274 11278
49. K. Ikenishi 1998 Germ Plasm in Caenorabditis elegans, Drosophila and Xenopus Devel. Growth. Differ. 40 1 1 10
50. Isaeva, V.V. and Shukalyuk, A.I., Kolonial'nye kornegolovye rakoobraznye (Crustacea: Rhizocerhala): bespoloe razmnozhenie, stvolovye kletki, reproduktivnaya strategiya (Colonial Rhizocephalans (Crustacea: Rhizocerhala): Asexual Reproduction, Stem Cells, and Reproductive Strategy), Moscow: Nauka, 2007.
51. V.V. Isaeva A.V. Rybakov V.L. Kas'yanov 1999 In vitro Establishment of the Colonial Organization of the Interna of the Rhizocephalan Crustaceans Peltogasterella gracilis and Sacculina polygenea Dokl. Akad. Nauk 366 6 840 842
52. Isaeva, V.V., Shukalyuk, A.I., Trofimova, A.V., et al., The Structure of Colonial Interna in Sacculina polygenea (Crustacea: Cirrlpedia: Rhizocephala), Crust. Res., 2001a, no. 30, pp. 134-147.
53. V.V. Isaeva A.A. Reunov 2001 Germ Plasm and Germ Cell Line Determination: Role of Mitochondria Biol. Morya 27 4 231 237
54. V.V. Isaeva A.I. Shukalyuk E.A. Kizilova 2003 Recognition of Stem Cells in the Colonial Internae of the Rhizocephala Peltogasterella gracilis and Sacculina polygenea at the Parasitic Life Cycle Stage Tsitologiya 45 8 758 763
55. Isaeva, V.V., Shukalyuk, A.I., Korn, O.M., and Rybakov, A.V., Development of Primordial Externae in the Colonial Interna of Polyascus Polygenea (Crustacea: Cirripedia: Rhizocephala), Crust. Res., 2004, no. 33, pp. 61-71.
56. V. Isaeva Ya. Alexandrova A. Reunov 2005 Interaction between Chromatoid Bodies and Mitochondria in Neoblasts and Gonial Cells of the Asexual and Spontaneously Sexualized Planarian Girardia (Dugesia) tigrina Invertebr. Reprod. Devel. 48 119 128
57. V.V. Isaeva A.I. Shukalyuk A.V. Akhmadieva 2007 Stem Cells in Reproductive Strategy of Asexually Reproducing Invertebrates Biol. Morya 33 1 3 10
58. V.V. Isaeva A.I. Shukalyuk A.V. Akhmadieva 2008 Asexual Reproduction and Reproductive Strategy in Rhizocephalans (Crustacea: Cirripedia: Rhizocerhala) Zool. Zh. 87 3 1 12
59. Ivanova-Kazas, O.M., Bespoloe razmnozhenie zhivotnykh (Asexual Reproduction of Animals), Leningrad: Leningr. Gos. Univ., 1977.
60. Ivanova-Kazas, O.M., Sravnitel'naya embriologiya bespozvonochnykh zhivotnykh. Nizshie khordovye (Comparative Embryology of Invertebrates. Lower Chordates), Moscow: Nauka, 1978.
61. Ivanova-Kazas, O.M., Sravnitel'naya Embriologiya Bespozvonochnykh Zhivotnykh. Chlenistonogie, (Comparative Embryology of Invertebrates. Arthropods), Moscow: Nauka, 1979.
62. Ivanova-Kazas, O.M., Sravnitel'naya Embriologiya Bespozvonochnykh Zhivotnykh. Nepolnousye (Comparative Embryology of Invertebrates. Atelocerata), Moscow: Nauka, 1981.
63. R.A. Jenner 2000 Evolution of Animal Body Plans: the Role of Metazoan Phylogeny at the Interface between Pattern and Process Evol. Devel. 2 208 221
64. C.E. Juliano E. Voronina C. Stack 2006 Germ Line Determinants Are not Localized Early in Sea Urchin Development, but do Accumulate in the Small Micromere Lineage Devel. Biol. 300 406 415
65. M. Kashikawa R. Amikura A. Nakamura S. Kobayashi 1999 Mitochondrial Small Ribosomal RNA Is Present on Polar Granules in Early Cleavage Embryos of Drosophila melanogaster Devel. Growth Differ. 41 495 502
66. Kasyanov, V.L., Reproduktivnaya strategiya morskikh dvustvorchatykh mollyuskov i iglokozhikh (Reproductive Strategy of Marine Bivalve Molluscs and Echinodermes), Leningrad: Nauka, 1989.
67. Kasyanov, V.L., Reproductive Strategy of Marine Bivalves and Echinoderms, Enfield: Science Publishers, 2001.
68. V.L. Kas'yanov O.M. Korn A.V. Rybakov 1997 Reproductive Strategy of Barnacles (Thecostraca, Cirripedia). 1. Sexual Dimorphism, Reproductive System, Gametogenesis Biol. Morya 23 5 263 274
69. V.L. Kas'yanov O.M. Korn A.V. Rybakov 1997 Reproductive Strategy of Cirripedes (Thecostraca, Cirripedia). 2. Asexual Reproduction, Fecundity and Reproductive Cycles Biol. Morya 23 6 337 344
70. V.L. Kas'yanov O.M. Korn A.V. Rybakov 1998 Reproductive Strategy of Cirripedes (Thecostraca, Cirripedia). 3. Embryonic Development and Early Larvae Biol. Morya 24 5 269 277
71. V.L. Kas'yanov O.M. Korn A.V. Rybakov 1999 Reproductive Strategy of Cirripedes (Thecostraca, Cirripedia). 4. Cypris Larvae, Metamorphosis and Settlement Biol. Morya 25 1 3 12
72. A. Kerkis S.A.S. Fonseca R.C. Serafim 2007 In vitro Differentiation of Male Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells into Both Presumptive Sperm Cells and Oocytes Cloning Stem Cells 9 4 535 548
73. M. Kerszberg L. Wolpert 1998 The Origin of Metazoa and The Egg: a Role for Cell Death J. Theor. Biol 193 535 537
74. M.S. Klenov A.D. Stolyarenko S.S. Ryazanskii 2007 Role of Short RNAs in Regulating the Expression of Genes and Mobile Elements in Germ Cells Ontogenez 38 3 213 227
75. M. Kloc S. Bilinski A.P. Chan L.D. Etkin 2000 Mitochondrial Ribosomal RNA in the Germinal Granules in Xenopus Embryos Revisited Differentiation 67 80 83
76. S. Kobayashi M. Okada 1989 Restoration of Pole Cell Forming Ability to U.-V.-Irradiated Drosophila Embryos by Injection of Mitochondrial lrRNA Development 107 733 742
77. S. Kobayashi R. Amikura M. Okada 1993 Presence of Mitochondrial Large Ribosomal RNA outside Mitochondria in Germ Plasm of Drosophila melanogaster Science 260 1521 1524
78. S. Kobayashi R. Amikura M. Mukai 1998 Localization of Mitochondrial Large Ribosomal RNA in Germ Plasm of Xenopus Embryos Curr. Biol. 8 1117 1120
79. S. Kobayashi K. Sato Y. Hayashi 2005 The Role of Mitochondrial rRNAs and Nanos Protein in Germline Formation in Drosophila Embryos Zool. Sci. 22 943 954
80. N. Kotaja S.N. Bhattacharyya L. Jaskiewicz 2006 The Chromatoid Bodies of Male Germ Cells: Similarity with Processing Bodies and Presence of Dicer and microRNA Pathway Components Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103 2647 2652
81. Kozin, V.V., Smirnova, N.P., Babakhanova, R.A., and Kostyuchenko, R.P., Cell Sources of Growth Zone Development in Annelids during Metamorphosis, Regeneration, and Asexual Reproduction, in Mater. simp. "Kletochnye, molekulyarnye i evolyutsionnye aspekty morfogeneza" (Proc. Symp. Cellular, Molecular, and Evolutionary Aspects of Morphogenesis), Moscow: Tov-vo nauch. izdanii KMK, 2007, pp. 85-87.
82. P.S. Kunwar R. Lehmann 2003 Developmental Biology: Germ Cell Attraction Nature 421 226 227
83. O. Lacham-Kaplan 2004 In Vivo and In Vitro Differentiation of Male Germ Cells in the Mouse Reproduction 128 147 152
84. D.J. Laird A.W. de Tomaso 2004 Predatory Stem Cells in the Non-Zebrafish Chordate Botryllus schlosseri, Zebrafish 1 357 361
85. D.J. Laird I.L. Weissman 2004 Telomerase Maintained in Self-Renewing Tissues during Serial Regeneration of the Urochordate Botryllus schlosseri Devel. Biol. 273 185 194
86. D.J. Laird A.W. de Tomaso I.L. Weissman 2005 Stem Cells are Units of Natural Selection in a Colonial Ascidian Cell 123 1351 1360
87. J.L. Leatherman T.A. Jongens 2003 Transcriptional Silencing and Translational Control: Key Features of Early Germline Development BioEssays 25 326 335
88. A.K. Lim T. Kai 2007 Unique Germline Organelle, Nuage, Functions to Repress Selfish Genetic Elements in Drosophila melanogaster Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104 6714 6719
89. A.P. Mahowald 1971 Polar Granules in Drosophila. III. The Continuity of Polar Granules during the Life Cycle of Drosophila J. Exp. Zool. 170 551 563
90. A.P. Mahowald 2001 Assembly of the Drosophila Germ Plasm Int. Rev. Cytol. 203 187 213
91. N. Matova L. Cooley 2001 Comparative Aspects of Animal Oogenesis Devel. Biol. 16 1 30
92. H. Merchant-Larios F. Mendelovic A. Alvarez-Buyalla 1985 Characterization of Alkaline Phosphatase from Primordial Germ Cells and Ontogenesis of This Enzyme in the Mouse Differentiation 29 145 151
93. B. Mintz 1959 Continuity of the Female Germ Cell Line from Embryo to Adult Arch. Micr. Morphol. Exp. 48 155 172
94. K. Mochizuki C. Nishimiya-Fujisawa T. Fujisawa 2001 Universal Occurrence of the Vasa Related Genes among Metazoans and Their Germline Expression in Hydra Devel. Genes Evol. 211 299 308
95. T. Mueller M.F. Wullimann 2003 Anatomy of Neurogenesis in the Early Zebrafish Brain Devel. Brain Res. 140 137 155
96. Müller, W.E.G., Telomerase Activity in Sponges (Porifera) the Closest Related Taxa of the Hypothetical Ancestral Animal the Urmetazoa, in Telomeres and Telomerase, Krupp, G. and Parwaresch, R., Eds., Georgetown: Mol. Biol. Intelligence, 2002, pp. 300-313.
97. W.E.G. Müller 2006 The Stem Cell Concept in Sponges (Porifera): Metazoan Traits Sem. Cell Devel. Biol. 17 481 491
98. Nikitin, N.S., Morphogenetic Potential of Clusters of Nuclear Amoebocytes in Freshwater Sponge Erhudatia fluviatilis L. as a Function of Their Size, in Morfogeneticheskie protsessy pri raznykh tipakh razmnozheniya i v khode regulyatsii (Morphogenetic Processes in Different Reproduction Types and Under Control), Tokin, B.P., Ed., Leningrad: Leningr. Gos. Univ., 1974.
99. K. Noda C. Kanai 1977 An Ultrastructural Observation of Pelmatohydra robusta at Sexual and Asexual Stages, with a Special Reference to "Germinal Plasm," J. Ultrastruct. Res. 61 284 294
100. H. Orii T. Sakurai K. Watanabe 2005 Distribution of the Stem Cells (Neoblasts) in the Planarian Dugesia japonica Devel. Genes Evol. 215 143 157
101. B. Pain M.E. Clark M. Shen 1996 Long-Term In vitro Culture and Characterization of Avian Embryonic Stem Cells with Multiple Morphogenetic Potentialitiesm Development 122 2339 2348
102. Z. Pancer H. Gershon B. Rinkevich 1995 Coexistence and Possible Parasitism of Somatic and Germ Cell Lines in Chimeras of the Colonial Urochordate Botryllus schlosseri Biol. Bull. 189 106 112
103. M. Pesce K. Anastassiadis H.R. Scholer 1999 Oct-4: Lessons of Totipotency from Embryonic Stem Cells Cells Tiss. Organs 165 144 152
104. R. Peter P. Ladurner R.M. Rieger 2001 The Role of Stem Cell Strategies in Coping with Environmental Stress and Choosing between Alternative Reproductive Modes: Turbellaria Rely on a Single Cell Type to Maintain Individual Life and Propagate Species Marine Ecol. 22 1-2 35 51
105. K.J. Peterson R.A. Cameron E.H. Davidson 1997 Set- Aside Cells in Maximal Indirect Development: Evolutionary and Developmental Significance BioEssays 19 623 631
106. E. Raz 2000 The Function and Regulation of the Vasa like Genes in Germ Cell Development Genome Biol. 3 1017.1 1017.6
107. S. Reddy H. Rayburn H. von Melchner H.E. Ruley 1992 Fluorescence Activated Sorting of Totipotent Embryonic Stem Cells Expressing Developmentally Regulated LacZ Fusion Genes Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89 6721 6725
108. A. Reunov V. Isaeva D. Au R. Wu 2000 Is It Possible the Arising of Nuage Constituents from Mitochondria? Devel. Growth Differ. 42 129 143
109. A.A. Reunov S.Yu. Neznanova Ya.N. Aleksandrova V.V. Isaeva 2004 An Ultrastructural Study of the Interaction of Germinal Granules and Mitochondria in Apostichopus japonicus (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea) and Pleuronectes asper (Teleostei: Pleuronectidae) Biol. Morya 30 3 244 246
110. Rieger, R.M., Tyler, S., Smith, J.P.S. III, and Rieger, G.E., Plathelminthes: Turbellaria, in Microscopic Anatomy of Invertebrates, vol. 3. Plathelminthes and Nemertea, Harrison, F.W., Ed., New York: Wiley-Liss, 1991.
111. A.V. Rybakov A.I. Shukalyuk 2004 Thylacoplethus isaevae sp. n., a New Species of Colonial Rhizocephalans (Crustacea: Rhizocephala: Thompsoniidae) Parasitic on a Northwest Pacific Hermit Crab Pagurus trigonocheirus (Stimpson) J. Marine Biol. Ass. UK 84 1009 1017
112. E.E. Saffman F. Lasko 1999 Germline Development in Vertebrates and Invertebrates Cell Mol. Life Sci. 55 1141 1163
113. M. Saitou B. Payer U.C. Lange 2003 Specification of Germ Cell Fate in Mice Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. L. 358 1363 1370
114. K. Sato T. Sugita K. Kobayashi 2001 Localization of Mitochondrial Ribosomal RNA on the Chromatoid Bodies of Marine Planarian Polyclad Embryos Devel. Growth Differ. 43 107 114
115. G. Seydoux R.E. Braun 2006 Pathway to Totipotency: Lessons from Germ Cells Cell 127 891 904
116. N. Shibata Y. Umesono H. Orii 1999 Expression of Vasa (Vas)-Related Genes in Germline Cells and Totipotent Somatic Stem Cells of Planarians Devel. Biol. 206 73 87
117. Shukalyuk, A.I. and Isaeva, V.V., Stem Cells in Invertebrate Animals: Evolutionary Conservative Mechanism of Totipotency, Int. Soc. Stem Cell Res. San Francisco, 2005a, pp. 214-215.
118. A.I. Shukalyuk V.V. Isaeva 2005 Stem and Germ Cells in Asexually Reproducing Animals: a Comparative Study Mol. Biol. Cell. 16 11Suppl. 752a
119. A. Shukalyuk V. Isaeva E. Kizilova S. Baiborodin 2005 Stem Cells in Reproductive Strategy of Colonial Rhizocephalan Crustaceans (Crustacea: Cirripedia: Rhizocephala) Invertebr. Reprod. Devel. 48 41 53
120. A.I. Shukalyuk K.A. Golovnina S.I. Baiborodin 2007 Vasa Related Genes and Their Expression in Stem Cells of Colonial Parasitic Rhizocephalan Barnacle Polyascus polygenea (Crustacea: Cirripedia: Rhizocephala) Cell Biol. Int. 31 97 108
121. Simpson, T.L., The Cell Biology of the Sponges. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1984.
122. Smith, A., Embryonic Stem Cells, in Stem Cell Biology, Marshak, D.R. et al., Eds., New York: Cold Spring Harbor Lab., 2001.
123. A. Smith 2006 A Glossary for Stem Cell Biology Insight Nature 441 1060
124. Stem Cell Biology, Marshak, D.R. et al., Eds., New York: Cold Spring Harbor Lab., 2001.
125. Stem Cell Information. The National Institutes of Health Resource for Stem Cell Research. ( http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/scireport/appendixF.asp )
126. D.S. Stoner I.L. Weissman 1996 Somatic and Germ Cell Parasitism in a Colonial Ascidian: Possible Role for a Highly Polymorphic Allorecognition System Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93 15254 15259
127. D.S. Stoner B. Rinkevich I.L. Weissman 1999 Heritable Germ and Somatic Cell Lineage Competitions in Chimeric Colonial Protochordates Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96 9148 9153
128. H. Stoop F. Honecker M. Cools 2005 Differentiation and Development of Human Female Germ Cells during Prenatal Gonadogenesis: an Immunohistochemical Study Hum. Reprod. 20 1466 1476
129. S. Strome R. Lehman 2007 Germ Versus Soma Decisions: Lessons from Flies and Worms Science 316 392 393
130. N. Sunanaga Y. Saito K. Kawamura 2006 Postembryonic Epigenesis of Vasa Positive Germ Cells from Aggregated Hemoblasts in the Colonial Ascidian Botryllus primigenus, Devel. Growth Differ. 48 87 100
131. T. Takahashi J. Lützen 1998 Asexual Reproduction as Part of the Life Cycle in Sacculina polygenea (Cirripedia: Rhizocephala: Sacculinidae) J. Crust Biol. 18 2 321 331
132. K. Takamura M. Fujimura Y. Yamaguchi 2002 Primordial Germ Cells Originate from the Endodermal Strand Cells in the Ascidian Ciona intestinalis Devel. Genes Evol. 212 11 18
133. N.C. Talbot C.E. Rexroad Jr. V.G. Pursel A.M. Powell 1993 Alkaline Phosphatase of Pig and Sheep Epiblast Cells in Culture Mol. Reprod. Devel. 36 139 147
134. C.K. Teragawa H.R. Bode 1990 Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Interstitial Cell Migration in Hydra vulgaris Devel. Biol. 138 63 81
135. M.B. Thomas N.C. Edwards 1991 Cnidaria: Hydrozoa Microsc. Anat. Invertebr. 2 91 183
136. J. Travis 2007 A Close Look at Urbisexuality Science 316 390 391
137. J. Villegas P. Araya E. Bustos-Obregon L.O. Burzio 2002 Localization of the 16S Mitochondrial rRNA in the Nucleus of Mammalian Spermatogenic Cells Mol. Hum. Reprod. 8 977 983
138. M. Watanabe K. Itoh K. Abe 1992 Immuno Localization of Dead Family Proteins in Germ Cell Line Cells of Xenopus embryos Devel. Growth Differ. 34 223 231
139. Weismann, A., Das Keimplasma. Eine Theorie der Vererbung, Jena: Verlag von Gustav Fisher, 1882.
140. Weismann, A., The Germ Plasm. A Theory of Heredity, New York: Charles Scriber's Sons, 1893.
141. I.L. Weissman 2000 Stem Cells: Units of Development, Units of Regeneration, and Units in Evolution Cell 100 157 168
142. A. Williamson R. Lehman 1996 Germ Cell Development in Drosophila Annu. Rev. Devel. Biol. 12 365 391
143. Winslow, T., Stem cells. Scientific Progress and Future Research Directions, Bethesda: Nat. Inst. Health, 2001.
144. L. Wolpert 1988 Stem Cells: a Problem in Asymmetry J. Cell Sci. 10 suppl. 1 9
145. C. Wylie 1999 Germ Cells Cell 96 165 174