Mutualities and obligations: Changing social relationships in early modern England

Proceedings of the British Academy

Volumn 139, Issue , 2006, Pages 157-194

  Wrightson, Keith ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 61449512625     PISSN: 00681202     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
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References (243)

1. M. Clanchy, 'Law and Love in the Middle Ages', in J. Bossy (ed.), Disputes and Settlements. Law and Human Relations in the West (Cambridge, 1983), p. 64
2. B. Capp, When Gossips Meet. Women, Family, and Neighbourhood in Early Modern England (Oxford, 2003), p. 131
3. The metaphor is borrowed from S. Ottaway, 'Introduction: Authority, Autonomy and Responsibility Among the Aged in the Pre-Industrial Past', in S. Ottaway, L. A. Botelho, and K. Kittredge (eds.), Power and Poverty. Old Age in the Pre-Industrial Past (Westport, CT, and London, 2002), p. 3
4. W. J. Ashley, An Introduction to English Economic History and Theory. Part 2. The End of the Middle Ages (London, 1893), p. 49
5. E. Lipson, The Economic History of England, Vol II: The Age of Mercantilism, 6th edn. (London, 1956), pp. ii, ix, xii, lxxiv
6. For the broader intellectual context within which this interpretation was formulated, see R. M. Smith, '"Modernization" and the Corporate Medieval Village Community in England: some Sceptical Reflections', in A. R. H. Baker and D. Gregory (eds.), Explorations in Historical Geography (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 150-5
7. and M. Mascuch, Origins of the Individualist Self. Autobiography and Self-Identity in England, 1591-1791 (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 16-17
8. The specific contribution of the English Historical Economists is examined in G. M. Koot, English Historical Economics, 1870-1926
9. The Rise of Economic History and Neo-Mercantilism (Cambridge, 1987)
10. Their hostility to the prevailing dogmas of political economy and a timeless conception of 'economic man' was central to their conception of medieval society and to their preoccupation with the emergence and naturalisation of economic individualism. For an illuminating discussion of the views of Alfred Marshall, whose concern to emancipate economics from history distanced him from the Historical Economists, but who shared their perception of the pre-modern era as one witnessing the gradual evolution of institutions and attitudes more conducive to economic freedom, see R. C. O. Matthews and B. Supple, 'The Ordeal of Economic Freedom: Marshall on Economic History', Quaderni di storia dell' economica politico, 9 (1991)
11. W. Cunningham, The Growth of English Industry and Commerce during the Early and Middle Ages, 5th edn. (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 464, 465-7, 489, 550
12. C. Hill, The Century of Revolution. 1603-1714 (London, 1961), pp. 1, 307
13. C. Hill, Society and Puritanism in Pre-Revolutionary England (London, Panther edn., 1964), esp. ch. 14, quoting pp. 469,471
14. K. Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic. Studies in Popular Beliefs in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century England (London, 1971), p. 555 (cf. pp. 556, 561)
15. Alan Macfarlane similarly interpreted witchcraft prosecutions as 'a means of effecting a deep social change; a change from a "neighbourly", highly integrated and mutually interdependent village society to a more individualistic one': A. Macfarlane, Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England. A Regional and Comparative Study, 2nd edn. (London, 1999, (1970)), p. 197
16. L. Stone, The Family, Sex and Marriage in England, 1500-1800 (London, 1977), pp. 4-7, 118-19 and passim
17. I. Krausman Ben-Amos, 'Gifts and Favors: Informal Support in Early Modern England', Journal of Modern History, 72 (2000), 295-6
18. On demythologising, see e.g. M. Anderson, 'The Relevance of Family History', in M. Anderson (ed.), Sociology of the Family: Selected Readings, 2nd edn. (Harmondsworth, 1980), p. 39
19. M. Segalen, Historical Anthropology of the Family, trans. J. C. Whitehouse and S. Matthews (Cambridge, 1986), p. 5
20. T. K. Hareven, 'The History of the Family and the Complexity of Social Change', American Historical Review, 96 (1991), 95
21. M. Mann, The Sources of Social Power, Vol I: A History of Power From the Beginning to A.D. 1760 (Cambridge, 1986), p. 31
22. P. Abrams, Historical Sociology (Shepton Mallet, 1982), p. 20
23. For a fuller discussion of the controversy over the family, see K. Wrightson, 'The Family in Early Modern England: Continuity and Change', in S. Taylor, R. Connors and C. Jones (eds.), Hanoverian Britain and Empire. Essays in Memory of Philip Lawson (Woodbridge, 1998)
24. See e.g., on women: J. M. Bennett, 'Medieval Women, Modern Women: Across the Great Divide', in D. Aers (ed.), Culture and History 1350-1600. Essays on English Communities, Identities, and Writing (London, 1992)
25. and A. Vickery, 'Golden Age to Separate Spheres? A Review of the Categories and Chronology of English Women's History', Historical Journal, 36 (1993)
26. For civility and the 'civilising process': A. Bryson, From Courtesy to Civility. Changing Codes of Conduct in Early Modern England (Oxford, 1998), pp. 10, 282
27. For masculinity, see the Special Feature on Masculinities in Journal of British Studies, 44 (2005)
28. esp. K. Harvey and A. Shepard, 'What Have Historians done with Masculinity? Reflections on Five Centuries of British History, c. 1500-1950', 279-80
29. A. Shepard, 'From Anxious Patriarchs to Refined Gentlemen? Manhood in Britain, c. 1500-1700', 292, 295
30. and K. Harvey, 'The History of Masculinity, c. 1650-1800', 298-305
31. On the history of emotions: L. Pollock, 'Anger and the Negotiation of Relationships in Early Modern England', Historical Journal, 47 (2004), 568-9
32. On old age: S. Ottaway, 'Introduction', in Ottaway et al. (eds.), Power and Poverty, pp. 2 ff.
33. and S. Ottaway, The Decline of Life. Old Age in Eighteenth-Century England (Cambridge, 2004), p. 13
34. A. Wood, The Politics of Social Conflict. The Peak Country, 1520-1770 (Cambridge, 1999), p. 11
35. Quoting S. Hindle, The State and Social Change in Early Modern England, c. 1550-1640 (Basingstoke, 2000), p. 59
36. For the negotiation of authority, see e.g. the essays in P. Griffiths, A. Fox and S. Hindle (eds.), The Experience of Authority in Early Modern England (Basingstoke, 1996)
37. and M. J. Braddick and J. Walter (eds.), Negotiating Power in Early Modern Society. Order, Hierarchy and Subordination in Britain and Ireland (Cambridge, 2001)
38. J. Tosh, 'Masculinities in an Industrializing Society: Britain, 1800-1914', Journal of British Studies, 44 (2005), 330
39. E. Power, 'On Medieval History as a Social Study' (1933), in N. B. Harte (ed.), The Study of Economic History. Collected Inaugural Lectures, 1893-1970 (London, 1971), p. 119
40. J. H. Clapham, 'The Study of Economic History' (1929), in Harte (ed.), Study of Economic History, p. 64
41. M. J. Braddick's, State Formation in Early Modern England c.1550-1700 (Cambridge, 2000), pp. 1, 96 offers a new 'grand narrative of the development of the state'
42. C. Marsh Popular Religion in Sixteenth-Century England. Holding their Peace (Basingstoke, 1998)
43. N. Jones, The English Reformation. Religion and Cultural Adaptation (Oxford, 2002)
44. and E. H. Shagan, Popular Politics and the English Reformation (Cambridge, 2003) all seek to transcend the debate over 'success' and 'failure' in the English Reformation
45. E. A. Wrigley similarly redefines the debate over industrialisation and economic growth in Continuity. Chance and Change. The Character of the Industrial Revolution in England (Cambridge, 1988)
46. and 'The Divergence of England: the Growth of the English Economy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries', Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th series, 10 (2000)
47. For the notion of social 'legibility', see J. C. Scott, Seeing like a State. How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven and London, 1998), pp. 2-3 and ch. 1
48. K. J. Kesselring, Mercy and Authority in the Tudor State (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 120-1, 125-6
49. W. Gouge, Of Domestical Duties (London, 1622), pp. 172,173,196, 221, 228, 253, 271-2,303
50. The literature on English kinship is superbly surveyed in N. Tadmor, Family and Friends in Eighteenth-Century England. Household, Kinship and Patronage (Cambridge, 2001), pp. 107-12
51. Cf. Ben-Amos, 'Gifts and favors', 305-9
52. Tadmor, Family and Friends, pp. 122 ff., 163, 165
53. C. Holmes, Seventeenth-Century Lincolnshire (Lincoln, 1980), p. 29
54. Quoting S. Reynolds, Kingdoms and Communities in Western Europe, 900-1300 (Oxford, 1984), p. 67
55. S. Brigden, 'Religion and Social Obligation in Early Sixteenth-Century London', Past and Present, 103 (1984), 94-100
56. J. Bossy, Christianity in the West 1400-1700 (Oxford, 1985), p. 58
57. E. Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England, c 1400-c.1580 (New Haven and London, 1992), pp. 131, 142-3
58. G. Rosser, 'Communities of Parish and Guild in the Late Middle Ages', in S. J. Wright (ed.), Parish, Church and People. Local studies in lay religion, 1350-1750 (London, 1988), pp. 33-4
59. K. Farnhill, Guilds and the Parish Community in Late Medieval East Anglia c. 1470-1550 (York, 2001) pp. 1, 33-4, and chs. 3 and 5 passim
60. D. Woodward, Men at Work. Labourers and Building Craftsmen in the Towns of Northern England, 1450-1750 (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 29-35
61. W. L. Sachse (ed.), The Diary of Roger Lone of Ashton-in-Makerfield, 1663-74 (London, 1938)
62. A. Shepard, Meanings of Manhood in Early Modern England (Oxford, 2003), pp. 93-5
63. Woodward, Men at Work, p. 76
64. When Cuthbert Pearson's marital difficulties led to litigation in the Durham consistory court, the nineteen witnesses called could attest to a total of 293 years of knowledge of the man: D. Levine and K. Wrightson, The Making of an Industrial Society. Whickham 1560-1765 (Oxford, 1991), p. 280
65. Gouge, Domesticall Duties, pp. 225, 428-30, 498-9
66. M. Bulmer, Neighbours. The Work of Philip Abrams (Cambridge, 1986), p. 95
67. Rosser, 'Communities of parish and guild', pp. 35-7
68. Farnhill, Guilds and the Parish Community, p. 17 and chs. 3-5, quoting p. 171
69. A. J. L. Winchester, The Harvest of the Hills. Rural Life in Northern England and the Scottish Borders. 1400-1700 (Edinburgh, 2000), p. 46; Norfolk Record Office, DN/DEP/6/5b, fol. 202v (I am grateful to Andy Wood for this reference)
70. For the family as 'a little Commonwealth' or 'private Commonwealth', see S. Amussen, An Ordered Society. Gender and Class in Early Modern England (Oxford, 1988), p. 37
71. For the parish as a 'little commonwealth', see H. Falvey and S. Hindle (eds.), 'This Little Commonwealth': Layston Parish Memorandum Book, 1607-c.1650 and 1704-c.1747, Hertfordshire Record Publications, 19 (Hertford, 2003), p. 72
72. For the 'city commonwealth', see P. Withington, The Politics of Commonwealth. Citizens and Freemen in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 2005)
73. Quoting R. Jenkins, Social Identity (London and New York, 1996), p. 47
74. D. O'Hara, Courtship and Constraint. Rethinking the Making of Marriage in Tudor England (Manchester and New York, 2000), p. 147. (My emphasis.)
75. P. Rushton, 'Property, Power and Family Networks: the problem of disputed marriage in early modern England', Journal of Family History, 11 (1986)
76. M. Ingram, Church Courts, Sex and Marriage in England, 1570-1640 (Cambridge, 1987), ch. 6
77. A. L. Erickson, Women and Property in Early Modern England (London and New York, 1993), ch. 5
78. O'Hara, Courtship and Constraint, chs. 1, 3, 6
79. See, e.g. the steps taken by Ralph Josselin and Henry Newcome in R. Houlbrooke (ed.), English Family Life, 1576-1716. An Anthology from Diaries (Oxford, 1988), pp. 176-84
80. L. Gowing, Domestic Dangers. Women, Words and Sex in Early Modern London (Oxford, 1996), p. 26
81. Cf. D. C. Beaver, 'Brief glimpses of the relationships between spouses contrast sharply to the formal patriarchy expressed in law and in prescriptive literature', Parish Communities and Religious Conflict in the Vale of Gloucester, 1590-1690 (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1998), pp. 50-1
82. Gowing, Domestic Dangers, p. 27
83. Her daughter-in-law, Maria, denied her right to manage the household by a controlling husband, was more forthright: 'Well Mr Thynne,. . . believe I am both sorry and ashamed that any creature should see that you hold such a contempt of my poor wits, that being your wife, you should not think me of discretion to order . . . your affairs in your absence, but if you be persuaded that it is most for your credit to leave me like an innocent fool here, I will the more contentedly bear the disgrace': A. D. Wall (ed.), Two Elizabethan Women: Correspondence of Joan and Maria Thynne 1575-1611, Wiltshire Record Society, 38 (Devizes, 1983), pp. 14-15, 31-2
84. Pollock, 'Anger and the negotiation of relationships', pp. 574, 583, 587
85. Houlbrooke (ed.), English Family Life, pp. 96-7. Cf. pp. 65-8 for the case of Adam and Susan Eyre
86. T. Stretton, Women Waging Law in Elizabethan England (Cambridge, 1998), pp. 187-201
87. Ben-Amos, 'Gifts and Favors', 310 ff
88. P. Griffiths, Youth and Authority. Formative Experiences in England, 1560-1640 (Oxford, 1996), ch. 6, quoting pp. 291, 298
89. P. Rushton, '"The Matter in Variance." Adolescents and Domestic Conflict in Northeast England 1600-1800', Journal of Social History, 25 (1991), 91-5
90. liana Krausman Ben-Amos suggests that handling such conflicts was part of the process by which the young matured into independent adults: Adolescence and Youth in Early Modern England (New Haven and London, 1994), pp. 209-15
91. L. Pollock. 'Rethinking Patriarchy and the Family in Seventeenth-Century England', Journal of Family History, 23 (1998), 6
92. Capp, When Gossips Meet, p. 155
93. Rushton, 'Matter in Variance', p. 93
94. Quoting L. Fontaine and J. Schlumbohm, 'Household Strategies for Survival: An Introduction', in L. Fontaine and J. Schlumbohm (eds.), Household Strategies for Survival, 1600-2000: Fission, Faction and Cooperation, International Review of Social History, Supplement 8 (Cambridge, 2000), p. 6
95. and Pollock, 'Rethinking Patriarchy', 19-20
96. For surveys of such disputes, see e.g., R. B. Manning, Village Revolts. Social Protest and Popular Disturbances in England, 1509-1640 (Oxford, 1988), chs. 1-6
97. A. Wood, Riot, Rebellion and Popular Politics in Early Modern England (Basingstoke, 2002), pp. 82-95, 100-11
98. J. Walter, 'Public transcripts, popular agency and the politics of subsistence in early modern England', in Braddick and Walter (eds.), Negotiating Power
99. See e.g. J. Maltby, Prayer Book and People in Elizabethan and Early Stuart England (Cambridge, 1998), ch. 2
100. D. A. Spaeth, The Church in an Age of Danger. Parsons and Parishioners, 1660-1740 (Cambridge, 2000)
101. Beaver, Parish Communities, p. 50
102. A. Wolfram, 'Sex, Social Relations, and the Social Order in Early Modern England: Defamation Litigation in Cambridge and the Diocese of Ely, c. 1580-1640', M.Phil, thesis (Cambridge, 2004), pp. 7, 46, 52
103. For other studies of defamation and its significance, see e.g. J. A. Sharpe, Defamation and Sexual Slander in Early Modern England: The Church Courts at York, Borthwick Papers, 58 (York, 1981)
104. Ingram, Church Courts. Sex and Marriage, ch.10
105. Amussen, Ordered Society, pp. 101-4
106. A. Shepard, 'Manhood, Credit and Patriarchy in Early Modern England, c. 1580-1640', Past and Present, 167 (2000), 83 ff.
107. R. B. Shoemaker, 'The Decline of Public Insult in London, 1660-1800', Past and Present, 169 (2000)
108. C. Muldrew, 'From a "light cloak" to an "iron cage": historical changes in the relation between community and individualism', in A. Shepard and P. Withington (eds.), Communities in Early Modern England (Manchester and New York, 2000), p. 162
109. Abrams, Neighbours, p. 19
110. As recently re-emphasised by C. Marsh, 'Order and Place in England, 1580-1640: The View from the Pew', Journal of British Studies, 44 (2005), 22, 25
111. Wolfram, 'Sex, Social Relations, and the Social Order', p. 54
112. For an excellent recent example, see Bernard Capp's analysis of the manner in which conflict between two rival families in Sileby (Leics.) sucked in their kin and dependants, forced neighbours to choose sides, brought resentments and suspicions to the surface, and washed a great deal of dirty linen in public: 'Life, Love and Litigation: Sileby in the 1630s', Past and Present, 182 (2004), 74-6, 79
113. C. Haigh, 'Communion and Community: Exclusion from Communion in Post-Reformation England', Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 51 (2000)
114. Griffiths, Youth and Authority, pp. 303-6
115. F. Heal, Hospitality in Early Modern England (Oxford, 1990), pp. 17, 19-21, 31,49 ff, 80
116. Winchester, Harvest of the Hills, p. 47
117. R. King, 'The Sociability of the Trade Guilds of Newcastle and Durham, 1660-1750: The Urban Renaissance Revisited', in H. Berry and J. Gregory (eds.), Creating and Consuming Culture in North-East England, 1660-1830 (Aldershot and Burlington, VT, 2004), p. 58 and passim
118. C. Marsh, '"Common Prayer"in England, 1560-1640: The View from the Pew', Past and Present, 171 (2001), 74-83
119. A. Hunt. 'The Lord's Supper in Early Modern England', Past and Present, 161 (1998)
120. D. Cressy, Birth, Marriage and Death. Ritual, Religion and the Life-cycle in Tudor and Stuart England (Oxford, 1997)
121. Spaeth, Church in an Age of Danger, p. 7
122. The post-Reformation popular religion characterised critically by puritan ministers like George Gifford or Arthur Dent had a good deal in common with the religious values revealed in the narratives of John Eliot's converts among the Natick Indians of New England: an emphasis on 'harmonious relationships and the need to restore them when disrupted', on ceremony rather than orthodoxy, the sins of the Second Table rather than those of the First, and 'interpersonal relationships, among people and between people and their God, rather than creedal belief or abstract faith': D. K. Richter, Facing East from Indian Country. A Native History of Early America (Cambridge, MA, and London, 2001), p. 128
123. Cf. Barry Reay, Popular Cultures in England, 1550-1750 (Harlow, 1998), ch. 3
124. Cf. M. Carrithers, Why Humans Have Cultures. Explaining Anthropology and Social Diversity (Oxford, 1992), p. 9
125. For the notion of 'defining contexts', see J. Axtell, Natives and Newcomers. The Cultural Origins of North America (New York and Oxford, 2001), p. 6
126. For adaptive responses and role changes, see W. G. Runciman, A Treatise on Social Theory. Vol. 2: Substantive Social Theory (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 6, 8, 291
127. A. McRae, God Speed the Plough. The Representation of Agrarian England, 1500-1660 (Cambridge, 1996), ch. 1, quoting p. 36
128. Shagan, Popular Politics, pp. 274-8
129. The literature on these issues is immense and stretches back more than a century: see e.g. Ashley, Introduction to English Economic History and Theory. Part 2, ch. 4
130. R. H. Tawney, The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century (1912), Harper Torchbooks edn. (New York, Evanston, and London, 1967)
131. J. Thirsk, 'Enclosing and Engrossing', in J. Thirsk (ed.), The Agrarian History of England and Wales, Vol. 4:1500-1640 (Cambridge, 1967)
132. Important recent works include McRae, God Speed the Plough, esp. chs. 1-2, 5-6, 8
133. J. Whittle, The Development of Agrarian Capitalism. Land and Labour in Norfolk, 1440-1580 (Oxford, 2000)
134. J. Broad, Transforming English Rural Society. The Verneys and the Claydons, 1600-1820 (Cambridge, 2004), esp. chs. 4 and 6
135. Bacon quoted in N. Jones, English Reformation, p. 191
136. For religious conflict in local society, see e.g. P. Collinson, The Religion of Protestants: The Church in English Society, 1559-1625 (Oxford, 1982), ch. 5; P
137. Collinson, The Birthpangs of Protestant England. Religion and Cultural Change in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Basingstoke, 1988), ch. 5
138. J. Craig, Reformation Politics and Polemics. The Growth of Protestantism in East Anglian Market Tonus, 1500-1610 (Aldershot and Burlington, VT, 2001)
139. The many contributions to the debate over the social impact of Puritanism are discussed in K. Wrightson and D. Levine, Poverty and Piety in an English Village. Terling, 1525-1700, 2nd edn. (Oxford, 1995), pp. 197-220
140. Hunt, 'Lord's Supper', 81-2
141. J. J. Scarisbrick, The Reformation and the English People (Oxford, 1984), pp. 666-7
142. Duffy, Stripping of the Altars, pp. 454-5
143. D. Underdown, Revel, Riot and Rebellion. Popular Politics and Culture in England, 1603-1660 (Oxford, 1985), ch. 3
144. R. Hutton, The Rise and Fall of Merry England. The Ritual Year 1400-1700 (Oxford, 1994), chs. 3-6
145. Heal, Hospitality in Early Modern England, pp. 93 ff
146. S. Hindle, On the Parish: the Micro-Politics of Poor Relief in Rural England, c. 1550-1750 (Oxford, 2004), pp. 104 ff
147. C. Gittings, Death, Burial and the Individual in Early Modern England (Beckenham, 1984), esp. chs. 2 and 7
148. K. Wrightson and D. Levine, 'Death in Whickham', in J. Walter and R. Schofield (eds.), Famine, Disease and the Social Order in Early Modern Society (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 162-5
149. R. Houlbrooke, Death. Religion and the Family in England, 1480-1750 (Oxford, 1998), ch. 9
150. Archer, The Pursuit of Stability. Social Relations in Elizabethan London (Cambridge, 1991), pp. Ill ff, quoting pp. 120, 124
151. M. Chase, Early Trade Unionism: Fraternity, Skill and the Politics of Labour (Aldershot and Brookfield, VT, 2000), pp. 14-15, 24, 38
152. King, 'Sociability of the Trade Guilds', p. 63
153. J. S. Cockburn, 'The Nature and Incidence of Crime in England 1559-1625
154. A Preliminary Survey', in J. S. Cockburn (ed.), Crime in England 1550-1800 (London, 1977)
155. J. A. Sharpe, Crime in Early Modern England 1550-1750 (Harlow, 1984), esp. chs. 3-4
156. Wrightson and Levine, Poverty and Piety, chs. 5, 7 and pp. 197-220
157. Hindle, The State and Social Change, chs. 5, 7
158. For the longer term perspective on enhanced social regulation, see M. K. Mcintosh, Controlling Misbehaviour in England, 1370-1600 (Cambridge, 1998)
159. C. W. Brooks, Pettyfoggers and Vipers of the Commonwealth. The 'Loner Branch' of the Legal Profession in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1986), chs. 4-5
160. C. W. Brooks, 'Interpersonal Conflict and Social Tension: Civil Litigation in England, 1640-1830',00 in A. L. Beier
161. D. Cannadine and J. M. Rosenheim (eds.), The First Modern Society. Essays in English History in Honour of Laurence Stone (Cambridge, 1989)
162. C. Muldrew, The Economy of Obligation. The Culture of Credit and Social Relations in Early Modern England (Basingstoke, 1998), ch. 8
163. Marsh, 'Order and Place', 7-24
164. Beaver, Parish Communities, chs. 4-5. For defamation litigation, see above, n. 70
165. As suggested by Muldrew, 'From a "light cloak"', p. 165. Court action was frequently accompanied by mediation, and was in some respects undertaken in order to provide pressure leading to informal settlement. The fact that it was undertaken so much more frequently, however, remains significant
166. Scott, Seeing like a State, p. 9
167. F. Heal and C. Holmes, The Gentry in England and Wales (Basingstoke, 1994), pp. 102-3, 112-13
168. Brooks, Pettyfoggers and Vipers, p. 133
169. The phrase quoted is from Jones, English Reformation, p. 2
170. Quoting the definition of 'norms' in M. Anderson, F. Bechhofer, and J. Gershuny, 'Introduction', in M. Anderson, F. Bechhofer, and J. Gershuny (eds.), The Social and Political Economy of the Household (Oxford, 1994), p. 8
171. Cf. Ethan Shagan's view of the Reformation as triggering 'a process of cultural accommodation' in which people 'forged new consciences to navigate the unprecedented circumstances in which they found themselves', Popular Politics, pp. 7, 309
172. Quoting J. Walter, 'The Social Economy of Dearth in Early Modern England', in Walter and Schofield (eds.), Famine, Disease and the Social Order, p. 128
173. See also: P. Rushton, 'The Poor Law, the Parish and the Community in North-East England, 1600-1800', Northern History, 25 (1989)
174. Archer, The Pursuit of Stability, pp. 96-9
175. J. Boulton, 'Going on the Parish: The Parish Pension and its Meaning in the London Suburbs, 1640-1724', in T. Hitchcock, P. King and P. Sharpe (eds.), Chronicling Poverty. The Voices and Strategies of the English Poor, 1640-1800 (Basingstoke, 1997)
176. J. Kent and S. King, 'Changing Patterns of Poor Relief in some English Rural Parishes, c. 1650-1750', Rural History, 14 (2003), 136-7. Hindle, On the Parish, is a sustained exploration of this whole issue
177. Broad, Transforming English Rural Society, pp. 69, 77, 275-6
178. King, 'Sociability of the Guilds', p. 62
179. Tawney, Agrarian Problem, pp. xxiii, 231
180. Muldrew, Economy of Obligation, pp. 2, 5-6, 97, 101, 327
181. See e.g. S. Brigden, London and the Reformation (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1989), pp. 408, 417-20
182. J. Bossy, The English Catholic Community, 1570-1850 (London, 1975), ch. 7
183. P. S. Seaver, Wallington's World. A Puritan Artisan in Seventeenth-Century London (Stanford, 1985), ch. 6, esp. pp. 96-111
184. M. Spufford (ed.), The World of Rural Dissenters, 1520-1725 (Cambridge, 1995), chs. 3, 5, 7, 9, 10
185. A. Davies, The Quakers in English Society, 1655-1725 (Oxford, 2000)
186. D. Eastwood, Government and Community in the English Provinces, 1700-1870 (Basingstoke, 1997), pp. 32-3. As several of these studies make clear, the formation of distinct religious communities did not necessarily involve alienation from the surrounding community in other respects
187. Eastwood, Government and Community, p. 13
188. See also, Braddick, State Formation, pp. 27-8, 337, 347
189. J. R Kent, 'The Centre and the Localities: State Formation and Parish Government in England, c. 1640-1740', Historical Journal, 38 (1995)
190. M. Goldie, 'The Unacknowledged Republic: Officeholding in Early Modern England', in T. Harris (ed.), The Politics of the Excluded, 1500-1850 (Basingstoke and New York, 2001). By more extensive spheres, I mean e.g. joint attendance at meetings of local courts, or meetings with other parochial officers to negotiate over settlement cases and other common concerns
191. P. Borsay, The English Urban Renaissance. Culture and Society in the Provincial Town, 1660-1770 (Oxford, 1989), pp. 278-9, 282
192. R. Grassby, The Business Community of Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge, 1995), p. 393
193. S. Whyman, Sociability and Power in Late-Stuart England. The Cultural Worlds of the Vemeys, 1660-1720 (Oxford and New York, 1999), pp. 62-9, 87-109
194. A. G. Green, 'Houses and Households in County Durham and Newcastle, c. 1570-1730', Ph.D. thesis (Durham, 2000), pp. 240, 253 ft, 248-9, 258, 272-3
195. R. F. King, 'Aspects of Sociability in the North East of England, 1600-1750', Ph.D. thesis (Durham, 2001), ch. 6, esp. pp. 271, 278, 280-6. King adds (pp. 293-304) that this elite sociability was further extended by the 'virtual sociability' of letter-writing - the growing practice that provides our principal point of entry to the dynamics of these elite social milieux
196. P. Clark, British Clubs and Societies, 1580-1800. The Origins of an Associational World (Oxford, 2000), p. 5 and chs. 2, 3, 7
197. Borsay, English Urban Renaissance, p. 268
198. King, 'Aspects of Sociability', pp. 97, 102-16. When Isaac Thompson, a prominent member of the Newcastle and Gateshead horticultural society published his Collection of Poems, Occasionally Writ on Several Subjects in 1731, at least ten of his fellow members appeared on the subscription list, one of whom subsequently became his business partner
199. Chase, Early Trade Unionism, pp. 9,15,17 ff, 39-40,42
200. Cf. Withington, The Politics of Commonwealth, p. 144
201. Bryson, From Courtesy to Civility, pp. 113, 129-30, 133 ff
202. S. Hindle, 'Hierarchy and Community in the Elizabethan Parish: the Swallowfield Articles of 1596', Historical Journal, 42 (1999), 841-3 and passim
203. S. Hindle, 'A Sense of Place? Becoming and Belonging in the Rural Parish, 1550-1650', in Shepard and Withington (eds.), Communities in early modern England, pp. 98, 102-3
204. For 'chief or 'principal' inhabitants, see H. French, 'Social Status, Localism and the "Middle Sort of People" in England, 1620-1750', Past and Present, 166 (2000) rftxt For 'chief or 'principal' inhabitants,
205. For languages of differentiation and dissociation, see K. Wrightson, '"Sorts of People" in Tudor and Stuart England', in J. Barry and C. Brooks (eds.), The Middling Sort of People. Society and Politics in England. 1550-1800 (Basingstoke, 1994)
206. J. Barry, 'Bourgeois Collectivism? Urban Association and the Middling Sort', in Barry and Brooks (eds.), The Middling Sort of People, pp. 103-4, distinguishes particular associational milieux among the middle ranks
207. Cf. on social boundaries and 'mobility closures', H. French, 'The Search for the "Middle Sort of People" in England, 1600-1800', Historical Journal, 43 (2000), 287-8
208. That the particular 'social complexions' varied between denominations and localities, is well established. See e.g. M. Spufford, Contrasting Communities. English Villagers in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Cambridge, 1974), pp. 298-306
209. J. J. Hurwich, 'Dissent and Catholicism in English Society: A Study of Warwickshire, 1660-1720', Journal of British Studies, 16 (1976)
210. W. Stevenson, 'The Social and Economic Status of Post-Restoration Dissenters, 1660-1725', in Spufford (ed.), The World of Rural Dissenters
211. Davies, Quakers in English Society, ch. 2
212. Hindle, 'A Sense of Place', p. 98
213. Jenkins, Social Identity, pp. 20, 62
214. I. Burkitt, Social Selves. Theories of the Social Formation of Personality (London, 1991), pp. 44-5
215. For the prevalent view that patriarchal principles were virtually unchallenged in law and ideology, see e.g. S. Mendelson and P. Crawford, Women in Early Modern England, 1550-1720 (Oxford, 1998), pp. 431-2
216. This is a central theme of K. Wrightson, Earthly Necessities. Economic Lives in Early Modern Britain (New Haven and London, 2000)
217. See e.g. E. A. Wrigley and R. S. Schofield, The Population History of England, 1541-1871. A Reconstruction (London, 1981), pp. 257-65
218. A. Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1981), ch. 6
219. P. Sharpe, Population and Society in an East Devon Parish. Reproducing Colylon, 1540-1840 (Exeter, 2002), ch7
220. and M. Hunt, The Middling Sort. Commerce, Gender and the Family in England, 1680-1780, pp. 147-9 and passim
221. For industriousness and the concept of an early modern 'industrious revolution', see J. de Vries, 'Between purchasing power and the world of goods: understanding the household economy in early modern Europe', in J. Brewer and R. Porter (eds.), Consumption and the World of Goods (London and New York, 1993), pp. 107 ff
222. Hunt, TheMiddling Sort, chs. 2-3
223. Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth, chs. 2-6
224. L. Weatherill, Consumer Behaviour and Material Culture in Britain, 1660-1760 (London and New York, 1988)
225. M. Overton, J. Whittle, D. Dean and A. Hann, Production and Consumption in English Households, 1600-1750 (London and New York, 2004), esp. chs. 5-7
226. Hunt, The Middling Sort, pp. 26-9. See also the works cited below, n. 141
227. S. Hindle, 'The Problem of Pauper Marriage in Seventeenth-Century England', Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th series, 8 (1998)
228. Shepard, 'Manhood, Credit and Patriarchy', pp. 78-88, 90-100
229. P. Earle, The Making of the English Middle Class. Business, Society and Family Life in London, 1660-1730 (London, 1989), ch. 6
230. J. Smail, The Origins of Middle Class Culture. Halifax, Yorkshire, 1660-1780 (Ithaca and London, 1994), p. 167
231. Hunt, The Middling Sort, ch. 5. Peter Earle revealed sixteen years ago that over sixty per cent of the married women in a sample of London deponents at the turn of the eighteenth century claimed to be partly (27.4%) or wholly (36.6%) maintained by their own employment. That is a remarkable fact, and its implications for the actuality of marital roles in England's increasingly urbanised population remain to be fully explored: P. Earle, 'The Female Labour Market in London in the Late Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries', Economic History Review, 2nd series, 42 (1989), 337-8
232. R. Grassby, Kinship and Capitalism. Marriage, Family and Business in the English-Speaking World, 1580-1740 (Cambridge, 2001), chs. 6-7
233. J. Boulton,' "It Is Extreme Necessity That Makes Me Do This": Some "Survival Strategies" of Pauper Households in London's West End During the Early Eighteenth Century', in Fontaine and Schlumbohm, Household Strategies for Survival, pp. 61-2, 68
234. Cf. Ottaway's discussion of the changing balance between self-help, kin support and parish relief in the maintenance of the elderly in The Decline of Life, p. 9 and ch. 5
235. Muldrew, Economy of Obligation, pp. 150-7
236. Weatherill, Consumer Behaviour, pp. 37-8, 158-9
237. Overton et al., Production and Consumption, pp. 106-7, 166-7
238. See e.g. Helen Berry's analysis of the public discussion of readers' anxieties regarding courtship, marriage, sex and other gender-related issues in the Athenian Mercury, and how this could have the effect of 'disrupting and expanding notions of what constituted normal conduct': H. Berry, Gender, Society and Print Culture in Late-Stuart England. The Cultural World of the Athenian Mercury (Aldershot and Burlington, VT, 2003), esp. chs. 6-10 (quoting p. 236)
239. Stone, The Family, Sex and Marriage, p. 1
240. S. D'Cruze, 'The Middling Sort in Eighteenth-Century Colchester: Independence, Social Relations and the Community Broker', in Barry and Brooks, The Middling Sort of People, p. 183
241. A. Green, 'Houses and Households', pp. 16, 18, 127-56, 171, 172-6, 279
242. J. Demos, A Litile Commonwealth. Family Life in Plymouth Colony (Oxford and New York, 1970), p. 48
243. The phrase is from John Bossy, Peace in the Post-Reformation (Cambridge, 1998), p. 67