Gifts and favors: Informal support in early modern England

Journal of Modern History

Volumn 72, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 295-338

  Ben Amos, Ilana Krausman ^a  

^a BEN GURION UNIVERSITY OF THE NEGEV   (Israel)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0347199393     PISSN: 00222801     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/315991     Document Type: Article

References (340)

1. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1920; reprint, New York, 1958);
2. Christopher Hill, Society and Puritanism in Pre-revolutionary England (London, 1964), pp. 259-97, 483-87;
3. Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic: Studies in Popular Beliefs in Sixteenth and Seventeenth-Century England (London, 1971), pp. 660-79;
4. Lawrence Stone, The Family, Sex and Marriage in England, 1500-1800 (London, 1977), pp. 651-56;
5. David Underdown, Revel, Riot and Rebellion: Popular Politics and Culture in England, 1603-1660 (Oxford, 1985), p. 53;
6. Robert Jutte, Poverty and Deviance in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 102-3.
7. For a recent reformulation of the theory that postulates the decay of voluntary giving under the impact of the modern state, see Michael Taylor, The Possibility of Cooperation: Studies in Rationality and Social Change (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 163-75.
8. W. K. Jordan, Philanthropy in England, 1480-1660: A Study of the Changing Pattern of English Social Aspiration (London, 1959);
9. Paul Slack, Poverty and Policy in Early Modern England (London, 1988), pp. 169-73;
10. Ian W. Archer, The Pursuit of Stability: Social Relations in Elizabethan London (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 149-98;
11. John Walter, "The Social Economy of Dearth in Early Modern England," in Famine, Disease and the Social Order in Early Modern Society, ed. John Walter and Roger Schofield (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 103-9;
12. Marjorie K. McIntosh, "Local Responses to the Poor in Late Medieval and Tudor England," Continuity and Change 3 (1988): 209-45.
13. For Continental comparisons, see Brian Pullan, "Support and Redeem: Charity and Poor Relief in Italian Cities from the Fourteenth to the Seventeenth Century," Continuity and Change 3 (1988): 177-208,
14. and "Charity and Poor Relief in Early Modern Italy," in Charity, Self-Interest and Welfare in the English Past, ed. Martin Daunton (London, 1996), pp. 65-89;
15. Sandra Cavallo, Charity and Power in Early Modern Italy: Benefactors and Their Motives in Turin, 1541-1789 (Cambridge, 1995).
16. Judith M. Bennett, "Conviviality and Charity in Early Modern England," Past and Present, no. 134 (1992), pp. 18-41;
17. David Cressy, "Kinship and Kin Interaction in Early Modern England," Past and Present, no. 113 (1986), pp. 38-69.
18. McIntosh, "Local Responses," and "Networks of Care in Elizabethan English Towns: The Example of Hadleigh, Suffolk," in The Locus of Care: Families, Communities, Institutions, and the Provision of Welfare since Antiquity, ed. Peregrine Horden and Richard Smith (London, 1998).
19. See also the essays in Daunton, ed. For a broader view that incorporates and emphasizes the role of the voluntary sector in the growth of public welfare, see Paul Slack, From Reformation to Improvement: Public Welfare in Early Modern England (Oxford, 1999), chaps. 6-7.
20. See Walter; Bennett.
21. See also the comments of Bennett to the effect that this inadequacy has led historians to assign informal support a marginal or minimal role in the sustenance of the poor; p. 23. For a similar critique, see also Walter.
22. For a critique of historians' focus on charity as the product of concern for the plight of the poor or for the social consequences of poverty, see Sandra Cavallo, "The Motivations of Benefactors: An Overview of Approaches to the Study of Charity," in Medicine and Charity before the Welfare State, ed. John Barry and Colin Jones (London and New York, 1991), pp. 46-62, esp. 50-51.
23. For studies that point to the politics and social functions of charity, see ibid; Bennett; Marco H. D. van Leeuwen, "Logic of Charity: Poor Relief in Preindustrial Europe," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 24 (1994): 589-613.
24. Gift theories provide an analytical frame and point to a broad range of options and meanings that the historian can employ in her analysis and that normally remain unnoticed. The theories need not be applied rigidly, but - as I have tried to do here - they can be modified and built upon as the historical analysis proceeds.
25. Marcel Mauss, The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies, trans. W. D. Halls (1925; reprint, London, 1990);
26. Marshall Sahlins, Stone Age Economics (London, 1978), pp. 185-230;
27. James G. Carrier, Gifts and Commodities: Exchange and Western Capitalism since 1700 (London and New York, 1995), pp. 18-38;
28. Aafke E. Komter, ed., The Gift: An Interdisciplinary Perspective (Amsterdam, 1996) ;
29. Avner Offer, "Between the Gift and the Market: The Economy of Regard," Economic History Review 50 (1997): 450-76.
30. For a pioneering analysis of gift exchange in an early modern context, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "Beyond the Market: Books as Gifts in Sixteenth-Century France," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser., 33 (1983): 69-88.
31. Archer, The Pursuit of Stability, p. 117.
32. Mauss, pp. 19-20, 31-33.
33. Sahlins, pp. 221-22.
34. Mauss, p. 18;
35. Branislaw Malinowski, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (New York, 1922), pp. 177-82;
36. Barry Schwartz, "The Social Psychology of the Gift," in Komter, ed., pp. 69-80. For the economy of "regard," see Offer; for the social and emotional value of gifts, in sixteenth-century France, see Davis.
37. Mauss, p. 31.
38. Thomas Cranmer, Catechismus . . . a Short Instruction into Christian Religion (London, 1548), p. lxii.
39. Richard L. Greaves, Society and Religion in Elizabethan England (Minneapolis, 1981), pp. 548-68;
40. Margo Todd, Christian Humanism and the Puritan Social Order (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 118-75;
41. Felicity Heal, Hospitality in Early Modern England (Oxford, 1990), pp. 123-40;
42. Gerald Strauss, Luther's House of Learning: Indoctrination of the Young in the German Reformation (London, 1978), chap. 7. See also below, pp. 323-24.
43. Jonathan Parry, "On the Moral Perils of Exchange," in Money and the Morality of Exchange, ed. Jonathan Parry and M. Bloch (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 64-93.
44. Pierre Bourdieu, "The Work of Time," in Komter, ed., pp. 135-47.
45. For a summary of findings, see Cressy, "Kinship and Kin Interaction" (n. 3 above), pp. 53-54;
46. W. Coster, "Kinship and Inheritance in Early Modern England: Three Yorkshire Parishes," Borthwick Papers 82 (1993): 9.
47. Richard M. Smith, "Some Issues concerning Families and Their Property in Rural England, 1250-1800," in Land, Kinship and Life Cycle, ed. Richard M. Smith (Cambridge, 1984), p. 56.
48. Keith Wrightson, "Kinship in an English Village: Terling, Essex, 1550-1700," in Smith, ed., pp. 326-29;
49. Amy Louise Erickson, Women and Property in Early Modern England (London and New York, 1993), pp. 73-78.
50. Erickson, pp. 49-60. For apprenticeship premiums,
51. see Ilana Krausman Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth in Early Modern England (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1994), pp. 89-92.
52. Ann Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1981), pp. 24-26;
53. Peter Laslett, "Family, Kinship and Collectivity as Systems of Support in Pre-industrial Europe: A Consideration of the 'Nuclear-Hardship' Hypothesis," Continuity and Change 3 (1988): 155;
54. Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth, p. 165.
55. Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth, pp. 159-65.
56. For examples, see Ilana Krausman Ben-Amos, Human Bonding: Parents and Their Offspring in Early Modern England, Discussion Papers in Social and Economic History no. 17 (Oxford, 1997), pp. 8-10.
57. Peter Laslett, "Characteristics of the Western Family Considered over Time," in his Family, Life and Illicit Love in Earlier Generations (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 12-50;
58. Smith, "Some Issues concerning Families," p. 55;
59. Margaret Pelling and Richard M. Smith, eds., Life, Death, and the Elderly: Historical Perspectives (London and New York, 1991), pp. 13-15.
60. Laslett, "Characteristics of the Western Family," pp. 12-50;
61. Smith, "Some Issues concerning Families," pp. 13-15,
62. and "Charity, Self Interest and Welfare: Reflections from Demographic and Family History," in Daunton, ed., pp. 23-50;
63. David Thomson, "The Welfare of the Elderly in the Past: A Family or Community Responsibility," in Pelling and Smith, eds., pp. 194-221;
64. John Henderson and Richard Wall, eds., Poor Women and Children in the European Past (London, 1994), pp. 14-15.
65. Alan Macfarlane, Marriage and Love in England: Modes of Reproduction, 1300-1840 (Oxford, 1986), pp. 103-16, esp. pp. 114-16.
66. Linda A. Pollock, Forgotten Children: Parent-Child Relations from 1500 to 1900 (Cambridge, 1983), pp. 208-11;
67. Ralph Houlbrooke, The English Family, 1450-1700 (London, 1984), p. 135.
68. Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth, pp. 40-45;
69. Margaret Pelling, "Healing the Sick Poor: Social Policy and Disability in Norwich, 1550-1640," Medical History 29 (1985): 121;
70. Maxine Berg, The Age of Manufactures, 1700-1820 (London, 1985), pp. 129-39, 212-13;
71. Maxine Berg and Pat Hudson, "Rethinking the Industrial Revolution," Economic History Review 45 (1992): 35-38.
72. Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth, pp. 72, 224.
73. Pat Thane, "Old People and Their Families in the English Past," in Daunton, ed., pp. 124-26;
74. Thomas Sokoll, "The Household Position of Elderly Widows in Poverty: Evidence from the English Communities in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries," in Henderson and Wall, eds., pp. 207-24.
75. For older widows living with daughters and their dependents in late sixteenth-century Norwich, see Margaret Pelling, "Older Women: Household, Caring and Other Occupations in the Late Sixteenth-Century Town," in her The Common Lot: Sickness, Medical Occupations and the Urban Poor in Early Modern England (London and New York, 1998), p. 165.
76. J. O. Halliwell, ed., The Autobiography and Personal Diary of Dr Simon Forman, 1552 to 1602 (London, 1849), p. 32;
77. George Bewley (born 1684), A Narrative of the Christian Experiences of George Bewley (London, 1750), pp. 28-30;
78. Heneage Dering (born 1665), Autobiographical Memoranda by Heneage Dering, Dean of Ripon, in Yorkshire Diaries and Autobiographies in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (hereafter Yorkshire Diaries), Surtees Society, vol. 65 (London, 1875-77), p. 344;
79. Frances Dodshon (born 1714), Some Account of the Convincement and Religious Experience (London, 1744), p. 42;
80. Ann Kussmaul, The Autobiography of John Mayett of Quainton (1783-1839), Buckingham Record Society, no. 23 (1986), p. 84.
81. James Fretwell (born 1699), "A Family History," in Yorkshire Diaries, vol. 65, pp. 221-26. For help provided by a daughter, a London servant, to her father in Lancashire,
82. see Adam Martindale (born 1623), The Life of Adam Martindale, ed. R. Parkinson, Chetham Society Publications, vol. 4 (1845), pp. 17-18.
83. The Proceedings of the King 's Commission on the Peace Held in the City of London and County of Middlesex at Justice Hall in the Old Bailey (Old Bailey Session Papers, hereafter OBSP), September 7-11, 1732, p. 199;
84. December 6-8, 1733, p. 45; June 28-30, 1733, p. 156 ("but his mother was seek, and he w[ould not] g[o] then [on a business trip]"). For protection offered to a parent and negotiations with the parish overseer in order to obtain an increase in the relief of a mother who became incapacitated, see Kussmaul, Autobiography of Mayett, pp. 77-78.
85. See also Thane, p. 132;
86. Lucinda M. Beier, "The Good Death in Seventeenth-Century England," in Death, Ritual and Bereavement, ed. Ralph Houlbrooke (London and New York, 1989), p. 56.
87. R. Trappes-Lomax, ed., The Diary and Letter Book of the Rev. Thomas Brockbank, 1671-1709, Chetham Society Publications, vol. 89 (1930), pp. 69-71.
88. Laslett, "Characteristics of the Western Family" (n. 27 above);
89. Cressy, "Kinship and Kin Interaction" (n. 3 above), pp. 53-59.
90. Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth (n. 23 above), p. 167;
91. W. Coster, "'To Bring Them Up in the Fear of God': Guardianship in the Diocese of York, 1500-1668," Continuity and Change 10 (1995): 9-29, esp. 20-21.
92. In a sample of 113 bonds signed for apprentices in early seventeenth-century Bristol, over half were signed by their parents, and nearly a quarter by people with identical surnames. Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth, pp. 168-69.
93. Steve Rappaport, Worlds within Worlds: Structures of Life in Sixteenth-Century London (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 80-81;
94. Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth, p. 166.
95. Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth, pp. 168-70;
96. Richard Grassby, The Business Community of Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge, 1995), p. 91.
97. Cressy, "Kinship and Kin Interaction," p. 51;
98. Grassby, pp. 89-91, 329-31;
99. Peter Earle, The Making of the English Middle Class (London, 1989), pp. 111, 135, 192.
100. In the 1630s, between 40 and 50 percent of new members in the Levant Company already had relatives (fathers, fathers-in-law, brothers) in the company, while colonial trade was also dominated by a group of merchants who were linked to one another "by a multiplicity of partnership and family ties." Robert Brenner, Merchants and Revolution: Commercial Change, Political Conflict, and London's Overseas Traders, 1550-1653 (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 72-73, 114-15, and tables 4.2 and 4.3, pp. 184-93, 194-95.
101. For the hazards of trade, see Grassby, pp. 91-98; Nualla Zahedieh, "Credit, Risk and Reputation in Late Seventeenth Century Colonial Trade," discussion paper (University of Edinburgh, Department of Economic and Social History, Edinburgh, May 1996), pp. 2-8.
102. For the role of reputation and trust in seventeenth-century oversees trade, see Zahedieh, pp. 9-15. For reputation, trust, and the benefits of family networks in economic exchange, see Yoram Ben-Porath, "The F-Connection: Families, Friends, and Firms and the Organization of Exchange," Population and Development Review 6 (1980): 1-30, esp. 5-8;
103. Avner Grief, "Reputation and Coalitions in Medieval Trade: Evidence on the Maghribi Traders," Journal of Economic History 49 (1989): 857-82.
104. Marjorie K. McIntosh, A Community Transformed: The Manor and Liberty of Havering, 1500-1620 (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 25-26;
105. Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry (n. 24 above), p. 59.
106. Peter Clark, "Migrants in the City: The Process of Social Adaptation in English Towns, 1500-1800," in Migration and Society in Early Modern England, ed. Peter Clark and David Souden (Totowa, N.J., 1988), pp. 271-73;
107. Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth, pp. 165-70.
108. For the role of kin in migration overseas, see Cressy, "Kinship and Kin Interaction," pp. 43-53.
109. Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth, p. 168.
110. "An uncle of his, after long solicitations got him to come up to town" - in the case of John Cartwright; "she came to an aunt, much against her father's will" - in that of Jane Holmes. The Ordinary of Newgate: His Account of the Behaviour, Confessions and Dying Words of the Malefactors, Executed at Tyborn, September 12, 1726, pp. 1-2. See also the account of John Lineham, February 13, 1739, p. 8.
111. In one case a landlady testified that she gave her lodger credit "till her uncle came." In another, the witness claimed to have been invited by a friend to go to his aunt, "of whom he expected to have had some money." In still another case the witness told the court that when her husband went to meet his brother who had just arrived from Northamptonshire, she became "dubitous that [he] should give [the brother] some of his money." OBSP, December 6-11, 1732, p. 2; June 2-4, 1731, p. 12; December 6-11, 1732, p. 15. For expectations for financial help from kin, see also Ordinary of Newgate, February 11, 1734, p. 7.
112. Edward Barlow returned to his uncle after his first apprenticeship failed: Edward Barlow, Barlow's Journal of His Life at Sea . . . from 1659 to 1703, trans. Basil Lubbock, 2 vols. (London, 1935), 1:24-30.
113. For other examples in autobiographies and court cases in which apprentices were driven to seek employment among their "friends" when their apprenticeship failed or their masters sent them away, see Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth (n. 23 above), p. 169.
114. OBSP, September 13-15, 1733, pp. 180, 195. In the late eighteenth century, female servants in London relied heavily on networks of kin in their frequent moves from one household to the next. Patty Seleski, "Women, Work and Cultural Change in Eighteenth- and Early Nineteenth-Century London," in Popular Culture in England, c. 1500-1850, ed. Tim Harris (London, 1995), pp. 150-51.
115. Michael Anderson, Family Structure in Nineteenth-Century Lancashire (Cambridge, 1971), pp. 152-61;
116. C. G. Pooley and Shany D'Cruze, "Migration and Urbanization in North-West England, circa 1760-1830," Social History 19 (1994): 338-52;
117. Tamara Hareven, "The Dynamics of Kin in an Industrial Community," in Turning Points: Historical and Sociological Essays on the Family, ed. John Demos and S. S. Boocock (Chicago, 1978), pp. 151-82;
118. Angelique Janssens, Family and Social Change: The Household as a Process in an Industrializing Community (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 160-92.
119. For London's population growth, see John Landers, Death and the Metropolis: Studies in the Demographic History of London, 1670-1830 (Cambridge, 1993), p. 41.
120. Margaret R. Hunt, The Middling Sort: Commerce, Gender, and the Family in England, 1680-1780 (Berkeley, 1996), pp. 22-34;
121. Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (1987; reprint, London, 1994), pp. 215-22;
122. Offer (n. 10 above), p. 468. For the most comprehensive study of kinship before and during industrialization and for the links between kin, business enterprise, and industrial firms in eighteenth-century German society, see David W. Sabean, Kinship in Neckarhausen, 1700-1870 (Cambridge, 1998), esp. pp. 449-89, 464-66.
123. For incompleteness of contracts due to bounded rationality, unforeseeable contingencies, and commitment problems, see Paul Milgrom and John Roberts, Economics, Organization and Management (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1992), pp. 160-61.
124. Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry (n. 24 above), pp. 49-69;
125. Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth, pp. 129-31.
126. Earle (n. 43 above), p. 225;
127. Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth, pp. 212-13.
128. Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth, pp. 173-75.
129. OBSP, January 13-16, 1720, pp. 1-2.
130. For requests for support based on previous work as servants, see Donna T. Andrew, "Noblesse Oblige: Female Charity in an Age of Sentiment," in Early Modern Conceptions of Property, ed. John Brewer and Susan Staves (London and New York, 1995), p. 285.
131. Richard Wall, "The Household: Demographic and Economic Change in England, 1650-1970," in Family Forms in Historic Europe, ed. Richard Wall, J. Robin, and Peter Laslett (Cambridge, 1983), pp. 497-99;
132. Jeremy Boulton, Neighbourhood and Society: A London Suburb in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 85-87;
133. S. J. Wright, "Sojourners and Lodgers in a Provincial Town: The Evidence from Eighteenth-Century Ludlow," Urban History Yearbook 17 (1990): 14-35, esp. 17-18;
134. Landers, Urban History Yearbook pp. 47-53, 68-70;
135. Urban History Yearbook Pelling and Smith, eds. (n. 27 above), p. 16.
136. OBSP, January 16-18, 1734, p. 50. For lodging in London, see Landers, pp. 47-49.
137. OBSP, September 7-11, 1732, p. 219; June 2-4, 1731, p. 4.
138. OBSP, April 19-22, 1732, p. 113 ("he had lodged and boarded there for two years and had paid her for six weeks"); December 6-11, 1732, p. 41 ("he used to do odd charrs, ran of errands, and water horses. I gave him victuals and let him sit by my fire").
139. OBSP, December 6-11, 1732, p. 6.
140. R. C. Anderson, The Book of Examinations and Depositions, 1627-1634, Southampton Record Society, vol. 31 (Southampton, 1931), p. 2; OBSP, January 18, 1732, pp. 60-61; September 7-11, 1732, p. 219; December 6-11, 1732, p. 27; February 21-24, 1733, p. 172 ("I always allow'd my lodgers to make use of such necessaries"); September 7-11, 1732, p. 182 ("the prisoner was quartered at my house, and behaved very civilly, so that I trusted him to draw drink").
141. OBSP, April 19-22, 1732, p. 113; January 14-19, 1732, p. 35.
142. OBSP, September 7-11, 1732, p. 219 ("he lodged and boarded two years in my house and when my wife lay-in he lay with me").
143. OBSP, February 23-25, 1732, p. 99. For close relations between lodgers, see OBSP, February 21-24, 1733, p. 80 ("I have chambers . . . three pair of stairs high. Mine are on the left-hand, and Mr Kerrel's on the right, we are very intimate together").
144. OBSP, June 28-30, 1733, p. 155; December 6-11, 1732, p. 20; February 21-24, 1733, p. 172. For lodgers bailing each other out of prison, see also Ordinary of Newgate, November 6, 1723, p. 5.
145. Wright (n. 61 above), p. 28.
146. Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry (n. 24 above), p. 32;
147. Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth (n. 23 above), pp. 172-73;
148. Margaret Pelling, "Apprenticeship, Health, and Social Cohesion in Early Modern London," History Workshop 37 (1994): 33-56.
149. OBSP, February 21-24, 1733, p. 75.
150. Christopher Brooks, "Apprenticeship, Social Mobility and the Middling Sort, 1550-1800," in The Middling Sort of People: Culture, Society and Politics in England, 1550-1800, ed. Jonathan Barry and Christopher Brooks (London, 1994), pp. 52-83, esp. pp. 62-73;
151. Keith Snell, Annals of the Labouring Poor: Social Change and Agrarian England (Cambridge, 1985), chaps. 2, 5;
152. David Souden, "Migrants and the Population Structure of Later Seventeenth Century Provincial Cities and Market Towns," in The Transformation of English Provincial Towns, 1600-1800, ed. Peter Clark (London, 1984), pp. 99-132;
153. L. D. Schwarz, London in the Age of Industrialisation: Entrepreneurs, Labour Force and Living Conditions, 1700-1850 (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 14-22.
154. L. D. Schwarz, "Social Class and Social Geography: The Middle Classes in London at the End of the Eighteenth Century," Social History 7 (1982): 174-77.
155. For lodging as an exchange across families, analogous to service, in the nineteenth-century American urban context, see Tamara Hareven, "The History of the Family and the Complexity of Social Changes," American Historical Review 96 (1991): 105.
156. Frank Henderson Stewart, Honor (Chicago and London, 1994), pp. 86-91.
157. Heal (n. 17 above), pp. 23-90, 141-92; Felicity Heal and Clive Holmes, The Gentry in England and Wales, 1500-1700 (London, 1994), pp. 283-89.
158. Heal, pp. 12-31, 71, 86-90.
159. Ibid., pp. 29-35.
160. Extracts from the Journal and Account Book of Timothy Burrell, Esq. . . . from the Year 1683 to 1714, Sussex Archaeological Collections, vol. 3 (London, 1850), pp. 125, 126, and passim.
161. This, of course, does not imply that the poor remained passive in their dealings with the elite, for however unequal, the reciprocity implied some power and room for negotiations between poor and rich. For examples of the poor enforcing the right to alms, see Walter (n. 2 above), p. 111. And see also E. P. Thompson, Customs in Common (New York, 1991), chaps. 4, 5.
162. William Whiteway of Dorchester: His Diary 1618 to 1635, Dorset Record Society, vol. 12 (Dorchester, 1991), passim.
163. David Cressy, Birth, Marriage, and Death: Ritual, Religion, and the Life Cycle in Tudor and Stuart England (Oxford, 1997), pp. 365-67, quotation on p. 367 (italics added).
164. For churching and funeral dinning, see also pp. 197-228; 443-49.
165. Heal (n. 17 above), pp. 360-65;
166. Robert W. Malcolmson, Popular Recreations in English Society, 1700-1850 (Cambridge, 1973), pp. 18-19.
167. Heal, pp. 361-62.
168. Malcolmson, pp. 20-22, 32, 53-54.
169. A. L. Beier, "Vagrants and the Social Order in Elizabethan England," Past and Present, no. 64 (1974), pp. 16-17;
170. Heal, Past and Present, pp. 384-85;
171. Books of Examinations and Depositions, 1570-1594, transcribed by Gertrude H. Hamilton, Southampton Record Society, vol. 16 (Southampton, 1914), pp. 39, 40;
172. R. C. Anderson, ed., The Book of Examinations and Depositions, 1622-1644, Southampton Record Society, vol. 29 (Southampton, 1929), pp. 42, 54-55.
173. Heal, pp. 210-16, 218.
174. Ibid., p. 177.
175. Ordinary of Newgate, October 9, 1732, pp. 26-27;
176. November 6, 1723, p. 3;
177. March 8, 1738, pp. 11-12 (accounts of Joseph Powis, James White, and George Price).
178. Clark (n. 47 above), pp. 269-76. For an account of a migrant who arrived in London in the early eighteenth century and went directly to the street where "he met with some of his countrymen," see Ordinary of Newgate, February 13, 1739, p. 8, and for an example of a couple who kept a lodging house "generally of their own country and people of the like character with themselves," see April 12, 1743, p. 11 (account of Patrick Kelley).
179. Anderson, ed., p. 56.
180. OBSP, May 25-29, 1732, p. 130. For recommendations of newcomers among neighbors, see OBSP, May 25-29, 1732, p. 128; December 10-13, 1730/31, p. 8; February 21-24, 1733, p. 75; September 7-11, 1732, p. 219.
181. OBSP, January 14-19, 1732, pp. 49, 73, and 33; April 13-16, 1732, p. 121; January 13-16, 1730/1, pp. 25-26; December 7-8, 1733, p. 21. For shared dinners, see OBSP, December 6-11, 1732, pp. 26-27; February 21-34, 1733, p. 80.
182. OBSP, January 6-7, 1720, pp. 5-6; January 13-16, 1730/31, p. 27; April 19-22, 1732, p. 106; December 6-8, 1733, p. 7; September 7-11, 1732, p. 179; September 13-15, 1733, p. 198.
183. OBSP, January 14-19, 1732, p. 33; January 13-16, 1730/31, p. 26.
184. OBSP, February 23-25, 1732, p. 85.
185. Heal (n. 17 above), pp. 190-91; Heal and Holmes (n. 78 above), p. 286; Cressy, Birth, Marriage and Death (n. 84 above), pp. 443-49.
186. Ronald Hutton, The Rise and Fall of Merry England: The Ritual Year, 1400-1700 (Oxford, 1994), p. 243; for legislation and attitudes to the vagrant poor, see below, and nn. 165 and 168.
187. Heal, pp. 190-91; Heal and Holmes, pp. 288-89.
188. Heal, pp. 389-95;
189. Linda Colley, In Defiance of Oligarchy: The Tory Party, 1714-1760 (Cambridge, 1982), pp. 100, 129.
190. Frank Tyrer, ed., The Great Diurnal of Nicholas Blundell of Little Crosby, Lancashire, 2 vols., Record Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, vol. 110 (London, 1968) and vol. 112 (London, 1970), 1:31;
191. Record Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, vol. 2:149, 151
192. ("Mr Fleetwoods servant John Idinn came to mend my windows and being he could not finish them he lodged here"), and passim. For letters addressed to his relatives, in which a man expressed his gratitude for their hospitality during repeated journeys from Bolton to Oxford, see Trappes-Lomax, ed. (n. 37 above), pp. 48-56, and passim. For the importance of hospitality in the social life of genteel and polite society, in the mid- and late eighteenth century, see Amanda Vickery, The Gentleman's Daughter: Women's Lives in Georgian England (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1998), pp. 195-223.
193. Hutton, pp. 243.
194. The custom appears to have persisted through the early and mid-nineteenth century, as indicated by the census of 1851, which listed large numbers of "vagrants others in barns" as a distinct occupational group. British Parliamentary Papers, 1852-1853, vol. 88, pt. 1:220, 225, 227.
195. Jordan (n. 2 above). For a review of the debate on Jordan's figures and a reassessment of the chronology of the growth of charitable donations, see Slack, Poverty and Policy (n. 2 above), pp. 163-64;
196. Archer, The Pursuit of Stability (n. 2 above), pp. 163-82.
197. For the rise in charitable trusts, see Slack, From Reformation to Improvement (n. 4 above), pp. 129-30.
198. Endowments appear to have diminished somewhat in the mid-sixteenth century and then rose again in the late sixteenth century and early decades of the seventeenth century. For the numbers of institutions in London in 1600 and 1700, see McIntosh, "Local Responses" (n. 2 above), pp. 222-23, 231;
199. Geoffrey Finlayson, Citizen, State, and Social Welfare in Britain, 1830-1990 (Oxford, 1994), pp. 62-63.
200. Patrick McGrath and Mary E. Williams, eds., Bristol Wills, 1546-1593, a type-script of wills proved in the Consistory Court of Bristol (Bristol Record Office, 1975);
201. Archer, The Pursuit of Stability, pp. 168-75;
202. EricksonThe Pursuit of Stability, pp. (n. 22 above), pp. 211-12;
203. Coster, "Kinship and Inheritance" (n. 20 above), p. 9;
204. D. Beaver, "'Sown in Dishonour, Raised in Glory': Death, Ritual and Social Organization in Northern Gloucestershire, 1590-1690," Social History 17 (1992): 411-12.
205. For servants and laborers who left 20 percent of their "limited wealth" to charity, see McIntosh, A Community Transformed (n. 46 above), p. 279.
206. Caleb Trenchfield, A Cap of Grey Hairs for Green Head, or the Father's Counsel to His Son (London, 1688), p. 200.
207. Slack, Poverty and Policy, p. 165;
208. Ian W. Archer, The History of the Haberdashers Company (Chichester, 1991), p. 74.
209. A Sermon Preached at the Funeral of the Incomparable Lady . . . Mary Arinyne (1676),
210. To the Reader; The True Christian's Character and Crown: A Sermon Preached at the Funeral of Mr William Cade (1671), p. a. For other references to generosity, see, e.g., the sermons preached at the funerals of Lady Strode of Newingham (1619), pp. 49-50;
211. Mrs. Mary ForbesThe True Christian's Character and Crown: A Sermon Preached at the Funeral of Mr William Cade ( (1656), p. A2;
212. Joseph AlleinThe True Christian's Character and Crown: A Sermon Preached at the Funeral of Mr William Cade ( (1672), p. 29;
213. Daniel Taylor, The True Christian's Character and Crown: A Sermon Preached at the Funeral of Mr William Cade (esq. (1655); p. 22.
214. For autobiographies in which the generosity of deceased relatives was elevated, see Simonds D'Ewes, The Autobiography and Correspondence of Sir Simonds D'Ewes, 2 vols. (London, 1845), 1:116;
215. William Stout, The Autobiography of William Stout, 1665-1752, Chetham Society, 3d ser., vol. 14 (1967), p. 175.
216. And see also Jordan, The Autobiography of William Stout, 1665-1752, pp. 215-28;
217. HealThe Autobiography of William Stout, 1665-1752, (n. 17 above), pp. 114-15;
218. Ralph Houlbrooke, Death, Religion, and the Family in England, 1480-1750 (Oxford, 1998), p. 313.
219. Slack, Poverty and Policy, p. 166;
220. Archer, Pursuit of Stability, pp. 169-75;
221. Erickson, Pursuit of Stability, pp. pp. 211-22.
222. A True Guide to Glory: A Sermon Preached . . . at the Funeral of . . . Lady Strode of Newingham (London, 1619), p. 50;
223. Bristol Wills, pp. 50, 51, 62;
224. Beaver, Bristol Wills, pp. p. 412.
225. G. P. Elliott, ed., Autobiography and Anecdotes: By William Taswell, Carnden Miscellany, vol. 2 (1852), p. 23;
226. Alan Macfarlane, The Family Life of Ralph Josselin: A Seventeenth-Century Clergyman (New York, 1977), p. 52;
227. Fretwell (n. 35 above), p. 217.
228. Extracts from the Journal and Account Book of Timothy Burrell (n. 81 above), pp. 123, 126, and passim;
229. Tyrer, ed. (n. 103 above), 1:135
230. ("my wife and I distributed some beefe in the morning to oure poore neighbours"), 281, 311; 2:214, 263, n. 44. And see also Slack, Poverty and Policy, p. 166;
231. Walter (n. 2 above), p. 112.
232. William Burkitt, The People's Zeal . . . Being a Sermon Preached . . . Soon after That Solemn Enternment of Their Reverend and Pious Minister . . . Mr William Gurnall (London, 1679), p. 23;
233. Mr. Newman, The Life and Death of That Excellent Minister of Christ Mr Joseph Alleine (London, 1672), p. 31.
234. Erickson, p. 210.
235. Greaves (n. 17 above), pp. 548-68; Todd (n. 17 above), pp. 118-75.
236. David Underdown, Fire from Heaven: Life in an English Town in the Seventeenth Century (London, 1993), pp. 90-129.
237. Jordan (n. 2 above), pp. 165-97; Todd, pp. 158-60; Greaves, pp. 557-62. For the rewards of charity and good works in catechisms, see Ian Green, The Christian's ABC: Catechisms and Catechizing in England, c. 1530-1740 (Oxford, 1996), pp 462-64, 468-78.
238. Fretwell, p. 217.
239. "A Commonplace Book Containing an Account of the Early Life of Elizabeth Ashbridge" (manuscript, 1755), Oxfordshire Record Office, BMM viii/1, fol. 2.
240. Simeon Ashe, The Faithful Christian's Gain by Death . . . Sermon at the Funeral of the Right Honourable Essex Countess of Manchester (London, 1659), p. 41.
241. And see also Richard Baxter, True Believers Choice and Pleasure . . . in the Exemplary Life of Mrs Mary Coxe (London, 1680), p. 28.
242. Thomas (n. 1 above), pp. 552-60; Heal (n. 17 above), pp. 139, 383-84.
243. Walter (n. 2 above), p. 111; Slack, Poverty and Policy (n. 2 above), p. 168.
244. For the mechanism of guilt, see also Robin Briggs, Witches and Neighbours: The Social and Cultural Context of European Witchcraft (London, 1996), pp. 144-46.
245. George Brysson (born 1649), Memoirs of George Brysson (London, 1825), p. 274.
246. For other autobiographies in which reference to alms giving is made, see Richard Davies (born 1635), An Account of the Convincement (London, 1794), p. 145;
247. Fretwell (n. 35 above), p. 217; Edward Terril, The Records of a Church of Christ Meeting in Broadmead, Bristol, 1640-1678 (London, 1847), p. 58 ("I remember when my aunt, on a time, sent me to the door with victuals to a poor body"); D'Ewes (n. 110 above), p. 116.
248. See OBSP, December 6-11, 1732, p. 4; Southampton Examinations, vol. 29 (1929), pp. 86-87; OBSP, August 28-31, 1700, p. 1.
249. Andrew (n. 60 above), pp. 275-300.
250. Jeremy Boulton, "Going on the Parish: The Parish Pension and Its Meaning in the London Suburbs, 1640-1724," in Chronicling Poverty: The Voices and Strategies of the English Poor, 1640-1840, ed. Tim Hitchcock, Peter King, and Pamela Sharpe (London, 1997), pp. 19-47, esp. 32, 36.
251. And see also Lynn Hollen Lees, The Solidarities of Strangers: The English Poor Laws and the People, 1700-1984 (Cambridge, 1998), pp. 31-32.
252. Bennett (n. 3 above), pp. 19-41.
253. Rappaport (n. 41 above), pp. 195-201; Archer, Pursuit of Stability, pp. 111-24,
254. and History of the Haberdashers (n. 113 above), 71-88, 132-34.
255. For support to decayed company members, in the form of casual labor, see Joseph P. Ward, Metropolitan Communities: Trade Guilds, Identity, and Change in Early Modern London (Stanford, Calif., 1997), pp. 57-72.
256. Clark (n. 47 above), pp. 282-85, and "Sociability and Urbanity: Clubs and Societies in the Eighteenth-Century City," The Eighth H. J. Dyos Memorial Lecture, Victorian Studies Centre, University of Leicester (1986); Newton E. Key, "The Political Culture and Political Rhetoric of County Feasts and Feast Sermons, 1654-1714," Journal of British Studies 33 (1994): 226-47;
257. Jonathan Barry, "Bourgeois Collectivism? Urban Association and the Middling Sort," in Barry and Brooks, eds., pp. 92-93;
258. R. J. Morris, "Clubs, Societies and Associations," in The Cambridge Social History of Britain, 1750-1950, ed. F. M. L. Thompson, 3 vols. (Cambridge, 1990), 3:396-97.
259. Slack, Poverty and Policy, pp. 169, 171;
260. Archer, The Pursuit of Stability, pp. 168-69;
261. Cressy, Birth, Marriage, and Death (n. 84 above), pp. 443-44 ;
262. Bennett, pp. 35-36; Donna T. Andrew, Philanthropy and Police: London Charity in the Eighteenth Century (Princeton, N. J., 1989), pp. 44-5 4 ; Beaver (n. 107 above), p. 411.
263. Andrew, Philanthropy and Police, pp. 10, 80-83;
264. Eadem, "Two Medical Charities in Eighteenth-Century London," in Barry and Jones, eds., p. 83.
265. For private charities as a "symbolic confirmation" of new wealth and social aspiration in late seventeenth-century Turin, see Cavallo, "Motivation of Benefactors" (n. 7 above), p. 55.
266. Clark, Sociability and Urbanity; Paul Slack, The English Poor Law, 1531-1782 (London, 1990), p. 51;
267. Peter Borsay, The English Urban Renaissance: Culture and Society in the Provincial Town, 1660-1770 (Oxford, 1989), pp. 123, 266, 332-33;
268. Marry E. Fissell, Patients, Power, and the Poor in Eighteenth-Century Bristol (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 74-75, 87;
269. Joanna Innes, "The 'Mixed Economy of Welfare' in Early Modern England," in Daunton, ed., pp. 144-49.
270. For a renaissance in associative charities and voluntary associations, in the early eighteenth century, see also Slack, From Reformation to Improvement (n. 4 above), pp. 133-49, esp. p. 148.
271. Slack, Poverty and Policy, pp. 167-68;
272. Innes, "The 'Mixed Economy of Welfare,'" pp. 145-46;
273. van Leeuwen (n. 8 above), pp. 601-2; Andrew, Philanthropy and Police, pp. 20-21;
274. M. J. D. Roberts, "Reshaping the Gift Relationship: The London Mendicity Society and the Suppression of Begging in England, 1818-1869," International Review of Social History 37 (1991-92): 201-31, 202.
275. Andrew, "Noblesse Oblige," pp. 275-300,
276. and her "'To the Charitable and Humane': Appeals for Assistance in the Eighteenth-Century London Press," in Charity, Philanthropy and Reform from the 1690 to 1850, ed. Hugh Cunningham and Joanna Innes (London, 1998), pp. 87-107.
277. Borsay, pp. 332-33; F. K. Prochaska, "Philanthropy," in Thompson, ed., 3:382.
278. Morris, "Clubs, Societies and Associations," pp. 395-445; Finlayson (n. 106 above), pp. 24-26;
279. Innes, "The 'Mixed Economy of Welfare,'" p. 144,
280. and her "State, Church and Voluntarism in European Welfare, 1690-1850," in Cunningham and Innes, eds., pp. 41-42.
281. Morris, p. 399.
282. Craig Muldrew, The Economy of Obligation: The Culture of Credit and Social Relations in Early Modern England (London, 1998), esp. chaps. 3-4,
283. and see also his "Credit and the Courts: Debt Litigation in a Seventeenth-Century Urban Community," Economic History Review 46 (1993): 23-38;
284. B. A. Holderness, "Credit in English Rural Society before the Nineteenth Century, with Special Reference to the Period, 1650-1720," Agricultural History Review 24 (1976): 97-109.
285. James S. Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1990), pp. 91-102;
286. Muldrew, Economy of Obligation, pp. 148-57.
287. Muldrew, "Interpreting the Market: The Ethics of Credit and Community Relations in Early Modern England," Social History 18 (1993): 173. For the added incentive for trust in symmetric/mutual relations in which participants act as both trustors and trustees, see Coleman, pp. 177-80.
288. Jean-Phillipe Platteau and Anita Abraham, "An Inquiry into Quasi-Credit Contracts: The Role of Reciprocal Credit and Interlinked Deals in Small-Scale Fishing Communities," Journal of Development Studies 23 (1987): 466-67.
289. Muldrew, "Interpreting the Market," p. 180;
290. Julian Hoppit, Risk and Failure in English Business, 1700-1800 (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 140-60; Hunt (n. 54 above), pp. 22-45;
291. Larry Neal, "The Finance of Business during the Industrial Revolution," in The Economic History of Britain since 1700, ed. Roderick Floud and Donald McClosky, 2d ed., 2 vols. (Cambridge, 1994), 1:151-81, esp. 159-62; Offer (n. 10 above), pp. 468-69.
292. Keith Wrightson, English Society, 1580-1680 (London, 1982), pp. 51-57; Walter (n. 2 above), pp. 109-14; Boulton (n. 61 above), pp. 236-47, 261;
293. Archer, Pursuit of Stability (n. 2 above), pp. 74-78.
294. Southampton Examinations, vol. 16(1914), pp. 40-41;
295. OBSP, January 6-7, 1720, p. 4; January 17-19, 1732, p. 32; December 7-8, 1733, p. 21. For money collected by neighbors to help out a prisoner who escaped, see Ordinary of Newgate, November 2, 1736, p. 12.
296. The Deposition Books of Bristol, 1643-1647, Bristol Record Society, vol. 6 (Bristol, 1935), pp. 77-78; 89; OBSP, January 14-17, 1694/5, pp. 1-2; January 13-16, 1720, pp. 1-2 ("and she perceiving him to be ill, took him into her room and set him by the fire"); January 13-16, 1720, p. 2; August 28-31, 1700, p. 1; January 14-19, 1732, p. 61; February 23-25, 1732, p. 85; February 23-25, 1732, pp. 83-84; December 5-8, 1733, pp. 17-18; December 6-8, 1733, p. 9. For visits and protection offered to the elderly, see OBSP, February 21-24, 1733, pp. 84, 86.
297. OBSP, January 13-16, 1720, p. 2; December 10-13, 1730/31, pp. 8-9; May 25-29, 1732, p. 128; May 25-29, 1732, p. 130; December 7-8, 1733, p. 20. For neighbors interfering on behalf of a servant in a dispute he had with his master, see Ordinary of Newgate, May 30, 1739, p. 12.
298. Southampton Examinations, vol. 29 (1929), p. 81; OBSP, May 25-29, 1732, p. 140; December 6-11, 1732, p. 17 ("The prisoner . . . us'd to come to my house. . . . He left 20 guineas with me to lay by for him"). For neighbors providing testimonies for the character of prisoners, see OBSP, February 21-24, 1733, p. 172.
299. OBSP, February 23-25, 1732, pp. 80, 82; April 19-22, 1732, pp. 105-6, 109, 116-17, 119; May 25-29, 1732, p. 126; December 6-8, 1733, p. 6; June 2-4, 1731, p. 10; December 6-11, 1732, p. 20; December 6-11, 1732, p. 18; September 13-15, 1733, p. 194.
300. OBSP, May 6-8, 1732, p. 151. See also Garthine Walker, "Women, Theft and the World of Stolen Goods," in Women, Crime and the Courts in Early Modern England, ed. Jenny Kermode and Garthine Walker (London, 1994), pp. 81-105.
301. OBSP, February 23-25, 1732, p. 99.
302. Ordinary of Newgate, November 8, 1738, p. 9.
303. For other accounts of companionship and support, see Southampton Examinations, vol. 16 (1914), p. 39;
304. Southampton Examinations, vol. 29 (1929), p. 3; OBSP, January 17-19, 1732, p. 36; March 5, 1733, p. 72; September 13-15, 1733, p. 193; February 21-24, 1733, p. 173 ("being a little [for it] I happen'd to take my lodging at my neighbour's door").
305. OBSP, January 13-16, 1730/31, pp. 25-26.
306. David Garrioch, Neighbourhood and Community in Paris, 1740-1790 (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 16-22;
307. Catharina Lis and Hugo Solly, "Neighbourhood and Social Change in West European Cities, Sixteenth to Nineteenth Centuries," International Review of Social History 38 (1993): 1-30, esp. 11-14;
308. B. Bramwell, "Public Space and Local Communities: The Example of Birmingham, 1840-1880," in Urbanizing Britain: Essays in Class and Community in the Nineteenth Century, ed. G. Kearns and C. W. J. Whithers (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 31-54.
309. And see also the work of Philip Abrams on neighborhoods in mid-twentieth century; M. Bulmer, Neighbours: The Work of Philip Abrams (Cambridge, 1986).
310. William Chappell, ed., The Roxburghe Ballads, 9 vols. (London, 1871), 1:67 ("The flatterer, whilst thou hast a chinke / will prefer meat and give thee drink / but thou for it shall dearly pay / for he will bring thee to decay"); Trenchfield (n. 108 above), pp. 38-39, 47-48.
311. Barlow (n. 51 above), 1:23, 263. For discussion of the burden of gifts, see Parry (n. 18 above), pp. 64-93; Offer (n. 10 above).
312. For an example, in criminal biographies of a prisoner who claimed to have left his family because "he could not endure his Home any longer, fancying that his father had more affection for his sister than for him," see Ordinary of Newgate, November 6, 1723, p. 4. For an analysis of sibling rivalries and their effect on parent-child interactions among the elite,
313. see Linda A. Pollock, "Rethinking Patriarchy and the Family in Seventeenth-Century England," Journal of Family History 23 (1998): 3-27.
314. Fretwell (n. 35 above), p. 205.
315. For the increase in litigation over debts in the course of the period, see Muldrew, The Economy of Obligation (n. 140 above), chap. 8. For the growing concern in the late seventeenth century over the injustice of imprisonment and the plight of debtors,
316. see Christopher Brooks, "Interpersonal Conflict and Social Tension: Civil Litigation in England, 1640-1830," in The First Modern Society: Essays in English History in Honor of Lawrence Stone, ed. A. L. Beier, David Cannadine, and James M. Rosenheim (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 395-96, 398.
317. For creditors and bankruptcies, see also Hoppit (n. 144 above), pp. 150-52. In late seventeenth-century London, justices tended to select guarantors for recognizances in petty crime among distant acquaintances rather than close kin and friends of the defender, presumably because they assumed that distant relations were more likely to force defenders to appear in court for fear of losing their money. Robert B. Shoemaker, Prosecution and Settlement: Petty Crime and the Law in London and Rural Middlesex, c. 1660-1725 (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 107-8.
318. For domestic violence and analysis of the circumstances leading to it, see Laura Gowing, Domestic Dangers: Women, Words, and Sex in Early Modern London (Oxford, 1996), pp. 206-29.
319. For help ales in crisis years, see Maria Moisa, "Debate: Conviviality and Charity in Early Modern England," Past and Present, no. 154 (1997), pp. 225-26.
320. For examples, see Annabel Gregory, "Witchcraft, Politics and 'Good Neighbourhood' in Early Seventeenth-Century Rye," Past and Present, no. 133 (1991), pp. 54-58;
321. James Sharpe, "Witchcraft and Women in Seventeenth-Century England: Some Northern Evidence," Continuity and Change 2 (1991): 179-200; Briggs (n. 124 above), passim .
322. Sahlins (n. 10 above), pp. 196-204.
323. Bennett (n. 3 above), p. 41; Cressy, Birth, Marriage, and Death (n. 84 above), p. 446.
324. Beier (n. 88 above), pp. 3-29; Wrightson (n. 145 above), pp. 141-42; Slack, Poverty and Policy (n. 2 above), pp. 92-94;
325. Marjorie Keniston McIntosh, Controlling Misbehaviour in England, 1370-1600 (Cambridge, 1998), esp. pp. 88-93, and see also n. 168 below.
326. McIntosh, "Local Responses" (n. 2 above), pp. 225-28.
327. Heal (n. 167 above), p. 132; Ralph Houlbrooke, "Death, Church and Family in England between the Late Fifteenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries," in Houlbrooke, ed., p. 30.
328. For the most comprehensive analysis of the role of various factors - demography, government at the local and national levels, Protestantism - in the social regulation of vagrants and other poor in the period up to 1600, see McIntosh, Controlling Misbehaviour.
329. McIntosh demonstrates that in the final decades of the sixteenth century population pressures were prominent in shaping communal reactions to vagrants and other outsiders, but by 1600 other factors - government at the national level, the church, and to some extent Puritanism - were playing a more significant part. For the role of state legislation in the seventeenth century, see also Slack, Poverty and Policy, pp. 17-32, 113-31; Heal, pp. 122-40;
330. Steve Hindle, "Exclusion Crises: Poverty, Migration and Parochial Responsibility in English Rural Communities, c. 1560-1660," Rural History 7 (1996): 126-31, and nn. 11, 16.
331. And see also Pullan, "Charity and Poor Relief (n. 2 above), pp. 65-67.
332. Bennett, pp. 35-36; Cressy, Birth, Marriage, and Death, p. 446.
333. Slack, English Poor Law (n. 134 above), p. 55; Pelling and Smith, eds. (n. 27 above), p. 15.
334. Brooks, "Apprenticeship, Social Mobility and the Middling Sort" (n. 74 above), p. 68.
335. Clark (n. 47 above), pp. 280, 285.
336. Ben-Amos, Adolescence and Youth (n. 23 above), p. 95.
337. Ordinary of Newgate, November 2, 1736, pp. 12-13.
338. Smith, "Charity, Self Interest and Welfare" (n. 28 above), pp. 44-45; for the cooperation between the state and charitable associations,
339. see Innes, "State, Church and Voluntarism" (n. 138 above), pp. 39-40;
340. Slack, From Reformation to Improvement (n. 4 above), pp. 161-63.