British conceptions of global empire, 1756-83

Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History

Volumn 26, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 1-27

  Bowen, H V ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 0032220694     PISSN: 03086534     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03086539808583038     Document Type: Article

References (154)

1. 1. After a lengthy siege Quebec had fallen to the British on 13 Sept. The news arrived in London on 16 Oct. when it was reported in a Gazette Extraordinary. For brief descriptions of some of the celebrations of 1759 see Kathleen Wilson, The Sense of the People: Politics Culture, and Imperialism in England, 1715-1785 (Cambridge, 1995), 197-8. For the background to, and political context of, the celebrations of 1759 see Marie Peters, Pitt and Popularity: The Patriot Minister and London Opinion during the Seven Years' War (Oxford, 1980), 143-53. For the celebrations across England and Scotland that had followed the recapture of Cape Breton the previous year see Bob Harris, '"American Idols": Empire, War and the Middling Ranks in Mid-Eighteenth-Century Britain', Past and Present, 150 (1996), 115-18.
2. 1. After a lengthy siege Quebec had fallen to the British on 13 Sept. The news arrived in London on 16 Oct. when it was reported in a Gazette Extraordinary. For brief descriptions of some of the celebrations of 1759 see Kathleen Wilson, The Sense of the People: Politics Culture, and Imperialism in England, 1715-1785 (Cambridge, 1995), 197-8. For the background to, and political context of, the celebrations of 1759 see Marie Peters, Pitt and Popularity: The Patriot Minister and London Opinion during the Seven Years' War (Oxford, 1980), 143-53. For the celebrations across England and Scotland that had followed the recapture of Cape Breton the previous year see Bob Harris, '"American Idols": Empire, War and the Middling Ranks in Mid-Eighteenth-Century Britain', Past and Present, 150 (1996), 115-18.
3. 1. After a lengthy siege Quebec had fallen to the British on 13 Sept. The news arrived in London on 16 Oct. when it was reported in a Gazette Extraordinary. For brief descriptions of some of the celebrations of 1759 see Kathleen Wilson, The Sense of the People: Politics Culture, and Imperialism in England, 1715-1785 (Cambridge, 1995), 197-8. For the background to, and political context of, the celebrations of 1759 see Marie Peters, Pitt and Popularity: The Patriot Minister and London Opinion during the Seven Years' War (Oxford, 1980), 143-53. For the celebrations across England and Scotland that had followed the recapture of Cape Breton the previous year see Bob Harris, '"American Idols": Empire, War and the Middling Ranks in Mid-Eighteenth-Century Britain', Past and Present, 150 (1996), 115-18.
4. 2. For contemporary printed reports of some of the celebrations in towns across British North America see Boston Evening Post, 15 and 22 Oct. 1759; Boston Post Boy, 22 Oct. 1759; Maryland Gazette, 1 and 8 Nov. 1759; New Hampshire Gazette, 19 Oct. 1759; and Pennsylvania Gazette, 18 and 25 Oct. 1759.
5. 2. For contemporary printed reports of some of the celebrations in towns across British North America see Boston Evening Post, 15 and 22 Oct. 1759; Boston Post Boy, 22 Oct. 1759; Maryland Gazette, 1 and 8 Nov. 1759; New Hampshire Gazette, 19 Oct. 1759; and Pennsylvania Gazette, 18 and 25 Oct. 1759.
6. 2. For contemporary printed reports of some of the celebrations in towns across British North America see Boston Evening Post, 15 and 22 Oct. 1759; Boston Post Boy, 22 Oct. 1759; Maryland Gazette, 1 and 8 Nov. 1759; New Hampshire Gazette, 19 Oct. 1759; and Pennsylvania Gazette, 18 and 25 Oct. 1759.
7. 2. For contemporary printed reports of some of the celebrations in towns across British North America see Boston Evening Post, 15 and 22 Oct. 1759; Boston Post Boy, 22 Oct. 1759; Maryland Gazette, 1 and 8 Nov. 1759; New Hampshire Gazette, 19 Oct. 1759; and Pennsylvania Gazette, 18 and 25 Oct. 1759.
8. 2. For contemporary printed reports of some of the celebrations in towns across British North America see Boston Evening Post, 15 and 22 Oct. 1759; Boston Post Boy, 22 Oct. 1759; Maryland Gazette, 1 and 8 Nov. 1759; New Hampshire Gazette, 19 Oct. 1759; and Pennsylvania Gazette, 18 and 25 Oct. 1759.
9. 3. The Monitor, or British Freeholder, no.231, 22 Dec. 1759.
10. 4. Details of the celebrations appeared in Leicester and Nottingham Journal on 27 Oct. 1759. This edition also contained reports of public rejoicing at Stoney Stanton and Derby. For brief details of celebrations in Northampton see Northampton Mercury, 22 Oct. 1759. A week later the Mercury reported similar happenings in Oxford, Cambridge, Fakenham, Walsingham, Wells, and Swaffham.
11. 4. Details of the celebrations appeared in Leicester and Nottingham Journal on 27 Oct. 1759. This edition also contained reports of public rejoicing at Stoney Stanton and Derby. For brief details of celebrations in Northampton see Northampton Mercury, 22 Oct. 1759. A week later the Mercury reported similar happenings in Oxford, Cambridge, Fakenham, Walsingham, Wells, and Swaffham.
12. 5. Gentleman's Magazine, XXIX (1759), 495.
13. 6. The 'tribute' was printed in the London Evening Post edition of 18-20 Oct. 1759 and the Public Advertiser of 20 Oct. It later appeared in the Gentleman's Magazine, XXIX (1759), 495. For details of a window illumination displayed in Boston, Mass. Sec Boston Evening Post, 29 Oct. 1759. In general, the public celebrations in North America did not place British victories in Canada in a global context; instead, and not surprisingly, they focused on the local dimensions of the French defeat.
14. 6. The 'tribute' was printed in the London Evening Post edition of 18-20 Oct. 1759 and the Public Advertiser of 20 Oct. It later appeared in the Gentleman's Magazine, XXIX (1759), 495. For details of a window illumination displayed in Boston, Mass. Sec Boston Evening Post, 29 Oct. 1759. In general, the public celebrations in North America did not place British victories in Canada in a global context; instead, and not surprisingly, they focused on the local dimensions of the French defeat.
15. 7. The order of events in London on the Day of Thanksgiving is described in London Evening Post, 29-30 Nov. 1759. The Northampton Mercury, 3 Dec. 1759 contains brief details of the Day of Thanksgiving, as celebrated in Northampton and Wellingborough. See Leicester and Nottingham Journal, 8 Dec. 1759 for an account of the celebrations at Ibstock of Admiral Hawke's victory at Ouiberon Bay.
16. 7. The order of events in London on the Day of Thanksgiving is described in London Evening Post, 29-30 Nov. 1759. The Northampton Mercury, 3 Dec. 1759 contains brief details of the Day of Thanksgiving, as celebrated in Northampton and Wellingborough. See Leicester and Nottingham Journal, 8 Dec. 1759 for an account of the celebrations at Ibstock of Admiral Hawke's victory at Ouiberon Bay.
17. 7. The order of events in London on the Day of Thanksgiving is described in London Evening Post, 29-30 Nov. 1759. The Northampton Mercury, 3 Dec. 1759 contains brief details of the Day of Thanksgiving, as celebrated in Northampton and Wellingborough. See Leicester and Nottingham Journal, 8 Dec. 1759 for an account of the celebrations at Ibstock of Admiral Hawke's victory at Ouiberon Bay.
18. 8. Address from Warwick, London Gazette, 5-11 Dec. 1759.
19. 9. Ibid., 1-4 Dec. 1759.
20. 10. Wilson, Sense of the People, 192-205.
21. 11. Harris, '"American Idols"', 118.
22. 12. Patrick Eyres, 'Neoclassicism on Active Service: Commemorations of the Seven Years War in the English Landscape Garden', New Arcadian Journal, 35/36 (1993), 62-123. I am very grateful to Patrick Eyres for supplying me with a copy of this article.
23. 13. Horace Walpole, Memoirs of King George II, ed. John Brooke (3 vols., New Haven and London, 1985), III, 80.
24. 14. Ibid.
25. 15. William Watts, Memoirs of the Revolution in Bengal, Anno Dom. 1757, by which Meer Jaffeir was raised to the government of that province together with those of Bahar and Orissa (1764), 121.
26. 16. Harris, '"American Idols"', 139. The issue of colonial acquisition within Britain's maritime empire is explored in Daniel A. Baugh, 'Maritime Strength and Atlantic Commerce. The Uses of a "Grand Marine Empire"', in Lawrence Stone (ed.), An Imperial State at War: Britain from 1689 to 1815 (1994), 185-223. Baugh also examines how long-standing assumptions and attitudes to territorial possessions changed during the 1750s. For a rather different perspective which stresses the 'strongly territorial character of the British state and empire' see John Robertson, 'Union, State and Empire; The Britain of 1707 in its European Setting' in ibid., 224-57.
27. 16. Harris, '"American Idols"', 139. The issue of colonial acquisition within Britain's maritime empire is explored in Daniel A. Baugh, 'Maritime Strength and Atlantic Commerce. The Uses of a "Grand Marine Empire"', in Lawrence Stone (ed.), An Imperial State at War: Britain from 1689 to 1815 (1994), 185-223. Baugh also examines how long-standing assumptions and attitudes to territorial possessions changed during the 1750s. For a rather different perspective which stresses the 'strongly territorial character of the British state and empire' see John Robertson, 'Union, State and Empire; The Britain of 1707 in its European Setting' in ibid., 224-57.
28. 16. Harris, '"American Idols"', 139. The issue of colonial acquisition within Britain's maritime empire is explored in Daniel A. Baugh, 'Maritime Strength and Atlantic Commerce. The Uses of a "Grand Marine Empire"', in Lawrence Stone (ed.), An Imperial State at War: Britain from 1689 to 1815 (1994), 185-223. Baugh also examines how long-standing assumptions and attitudes to territorial possessions changed during the 1750s. For a rather different perspective which stresses the 'strongly territorial character of the British state and empire' see John Robertson, 'Union, State and Empire: The Britain of 1707 in its European Setting' in ibid., 224-57.
29. 16. Harris, '"American Idols"', 139. The issue of colonial acquisition within Britain's maritime empire is explored in Daniel A. Baugh, 'Maritime Strength and Atlantic Commerce. The Uses of a "Grand Marine Empire"', in Lawrence Stone (ed.), An Imperial State at War: Britain from 1689 to 1815 (1994), 185-223. Baugh also examines how long-standing assumptions and attitudes to territorial possessions changed during the 1750s. For a rather different perspective which stresses the 'strongly territorial character of the British state and empire' see John Robertson, 'Union, State and Empire; The Britain of 1707 in its European Setting' in ibid., 224-57.
30. 17. Quoted in Marc Egnal, A Mighty Empire. The Origins of the American Revolution (Ithaca, 1988), 12.
31. 18. Strahan to Hall, 2 Dec. 1772 quoted in P. Marshall, 'The British Empire and the American Revolution', Huntington Library Quarterly, XXVII (1963-4), 142. Hall was the publisher of the Pennsylvania Gazette and an extract from this letter appeared in that newspaper on 17 March 1773.
32. 19. See, for example, Philip Lawson, The Imperial Challenge: Quebec and Britain in the Age of the American Revolution (Montreal, 1989), 7.
33. 20. See, for example, the report of Burke's speech of 27 Feb. 1769, British Library [hereafter BL], Egerton [hereafter Eg.] MSS, 218, 162. Burke was responding to Clive's maiden speech in the House which is reported in ibid., 148-62.
34. 21. Leicester and Nottingham Journal, 5 Jan. 1760; Northampton Mercury, 7 Jan. 1760. A large number of songs and poems were written to celebrate the victories of 1759. See, for example, 'The Year Fifty-Nine: A New Song', Gentleman's Magazine, XXIX (1759). 587, and the verse 'To Mr. Urban' placed at the front of this volume.
35. 21. Leicester and Nottingham Journal, 5 Jan. 1760; Northampton Mercury, 7 Jan. 1760. A large number of songs and poems were written to celebrate the victories of 1759. See, for example, 'The Year Fifty-Nine: A New Song', Gentleman's Magazine, XXIX (1759). 587, and the verse 'To Mr. Urban' placed at the front of this volume.
36. 21. Leicester and Nottingham Journal, 5 Jan. 1760; Northampton Mercury, 7 Jan. 1760. A large number of songs and poems were written to celebrate the victories of 1759. See, for example, 'The Year Fifty-Nine: A New Song', Gentleman's Magazine, XXIX (1759). 587, and the verse 'To Mr. Urban' placed at the front of this volume.
37. 22. See, for example, the prophetic lines of King Solomon in Matthew Prior's meditations on 'the Vanity of the World' (1720), quoted in Richard Koebner, Empire (Cambridge, 1961), 81.
38. 23. Wilson, Sense of the People, 274-5.
39. 24. The crisis-ridden affairs of the East India Company were fully reported in the London press, generated a large volume of pamphlet literature, and regularly captured the attention of those with an interest in politics and scandal from the 1760s. Moreover, by the 1790s military victories in India were being regarded as a 'national' success and a cause for celebration (for this see P.J. Marshall, '"Cornwallis Triumphant": War in India and the British Public in the Late Eighteenth Century', in Lawrence Freedman, Paul Hayes, and Robert O'Neill (eds.), War, Strategy, and International Politics: Essays in Honour of Sir Michael Howard (Oxford, 1992), 57-74). No doubt much of this activity and interest was confined to the metropolis. The extent to which East India affairs struck a chord with those in the provinces remains unclear, and much work needs to be done on this. Nevertheless, as early as 1766 some, such those in Bishop's Castle. Shropshire, a parliamentary borough under the patronage of the Clive family, were rejoicing in public at the extension of British influence in India (see the brief report of this event in Lloyd's Evening Post, 25 May 1766).
40. 24. The crisis-ridden affairs of the East India Company were fully reported in the London press, generated a large volume of pamphlet literature, and regularly captured the attention of those with an interest in politics and scandal from the 1760s. Moreover, by the 1790s military victories in India were being regarded as a 'national' success and a cause for celebration (for this see P.J. Marshall, '"Cornwallis Triumphant": War in India and the British Public in the Late Eighteenth Century', in Lawrence Freedman, Paul Hayes, and Robert O'Neill (eds.), War, Strategy, and International Politics: Essays in Honour of Sir Michael Howard (Oxford, 1992), 57-74). No doubt much of this activity and interest was confined to the metropolis. The extent to which East India affairs struck a chord with those in the provinces remains unclear, and much work needs to be done on this. Nevertheless, as early as 1766 some, such those in Bishop's Castle. Shropshire, a parliamentary borough under the patronage of the Clive family, were rejoicing in public at the extension of British influence in India (see the brief report of this event in Lloyd's Evening Post, 25 May 1766).
41. 25. Koebner, Empire, 119-49. Koebner's book traces the development and constant redefinition of the term 'empire'.
42. 26. See the numerous examples cited in James Truslow Adams, 'On the Term "British Empire"', American Historical Review, XXVII (1921-22), 485-9.
43. 27. Quoted in Koebner, Empire, 88. For a recent analysis of conceptions of a British empire before 1750 see David Armitage. 'Making the Empire British: Scotland in the Atlantic World, 1542-1707', Past and Present, 155 (1997), 34-63. Armitage argues that the emergence of a flexible ideology underpinning the empire lay in the development of relations between England and Scotland, and was not 'solely the product of British activities in the western Atlantic, Africa and Asia' (p.35).
44. 27. Quoted in Koebner, Empire, 88. For a recent analysis of conceptions of a British empire before 1750 see David Armitage. 'Making the Empire British: Scotland in the Atlantic World, 1542-1707', Past and Present, 155 (1997), 34-63. Armitage argues that the emergence of a flexible ideology underpinning the empire lay in the development of relations between England and Scotland, and was not 'solely the product of British activities in the western Atlantic, Africa and Asia' (p.35).
45. 28. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776), eds. R.H. Campbell, A.S. Skinner, and W.B. Todd (2 vols, Oxford, 1976), II. 946-7.
46. 29. See, for example, the contemporary views cited in R. Coupland, The American Revolution and the British Empire (1930), 54-84.
47. 30. Harris,'"American Idols"', 126-31.
48. 31. For India see P.J. Marshall and Glyndwr Williams, The Great Map of Mankind British Perceptions of the World in the Age of Enlightenment (1982), 74-8; for Canada see Philip Lawson, '"The Irishman's Prize": Views of Canada from the British Press, 1760-1774', Historical Journal, 28 (1985), 575-6.
49. 31. For India see P.J. Marshall and Glyndwr Williams, The Great Map of Mankind British Perceptions of the World in the Age of Enlightenment (1982), 74-8; for Canada see Philip Lawson, '"The Irishman's Prize": Views of Canada from the British Press, 1760-1774', Historical Journal, 28 (1985), 575-6.
50. 32. Watts, Memoirs of the Revolution in Bengal, iii. Even though a great deal of printed information about India was in circulation after 1760 those in public life often displayed a lack of knowledge about, and a lack of interest in, East Indian affairs. See H. V. Bowen, Revenue and Reform: The Indian Problem in British Politics (Cambridge, 1991), 30-1. For contemporary views of India see F.D. Van Aalst, 'The British View of India, 1750-1785' (University of Pennsylvania, PhD thesis, 1970).
51. 32. Watts, Memoirs of the Revolution in Bengal, iii. Even though a great deal of printed information about India was in circulation after 1760 those in public life often displayed a lack of knowledge about, and a lack of interest in, East Indian affairs. See H. V. Bowen, Revenue and Reform: The Indian Problem in British Politics (Cambridge, 1991), 30-1. For contemporary views of India see F.D. Van Aalst, 'The British View of India, 1750-1785' (University of Pennsylvania, PhD thesis, 1970).
52. 32. Watts, Memoirs of the Revolution in Bengal, iii. Even though a great deal of printed information about India was in circulation after 1760 those in public life often displayed a lack of knowledge about, and a lack of interest in, East Indian affairs. See H. V. Bowen, Revenue and Reform: The Indian Problem in British Politics (Cambridge, 1991), 30-1. For contemporary views of India see F.D. Van Aalst, 'The British View of India, 1750-1785' (University of Pennsylvania, PhD thesis, 1970).
53. 33. The late Reverend John Entick and 'other gentlemen', The Present State of the British Empire: Containing a description of the kingdoms, principalities, islands, colonies, conquests, and of the military and commercial establishments under the British Crownin Europe, Asia, Africa, and America (4 vols, 1774); Arthur Young, Political Essays Concerning the Present State of the British Empire (1772).
54. 33. The late Reverend John Entick and 'other gentlemen', The Present State of the British Empire: Containing a description of the kingdoms, principalities, islands, colonies, conquests, and of the military and commercial establishments under the British Crownin Europe, Asia, Africa, and America (4 vols, 1774); Arthur Young, Political Essays Concerning the Present State of the British Empire (1772).
55. 34. Young, Political Essays, 227.
56. 35. John Campbell, A Political Survey of Britain: Being a series of reflections on the situation. lands, and revenues, colonies, and commerce of this island (2 vols., 1774), I, iv; Adam Anderson, An Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of Commerce from the Earliest Accounts. Containing an history of the great commercial interests of the British Empire .... Originally published in three volumes in 1763, a further volume was added to Adamson's work in 1801 in order to extend coverage to 1788.
57. 35. John Campbell, A Political Survey of Britain: Being a series of reflections on the situation. lands, and revenues, colonies, and commerce of this island (2 vols., 1774), I, iv; Adam Anderson, An Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of Commerce from the Earliest Accounts. Containing an history of the great commercial interests of the British Empire .... Originally published in three volumes in 1763, a further volume was added to Adamson's work in 1801 in order to extend coverage to 1788.
58. 36. P.J. Marshall, 'Empire and Authority in the Late Eighteenth Century', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XV (1987), 105-22.
59. 37. Anthony Pagden, Lords of All the World: Ideologies of Empire in Spain, Britain, and France, c.1500-c.1800 (New Haven, 1995), 125-55.
60. 38. Anon., A Complete History of the War in India from the Year 1749 to the Taking of Pondicherry in 1761 (1761), 91.
61. 39. Young, Political Essays, 5.
62. 40. Peter N. Miller, Defining the Common Good: Empire, religion and philosophy in eighteenth-century Britain (Cambridge 1994), 182-5, 202.
63. 41. Young, Political Essays, 10.
64. 42. Entick, The Present State of the British Empire, I, 1.
65. 43. Ibid., 2. For a discussion of the often erroneous contemporary comparisons made between Britain's imperial relationships and those established by Greece and Rome in earlier times see Miller, Defining the Common Good, 192-4
66. 43. Ibid., 2. For a discussion of the often erroneous contemporary comparisons made between Britain's imperial relationships and those established by Greece and Rome in earlier times see Miller, Defining the Common Good, 192-4
67. 44. Marshall, 'Empire and Authority', 107.
68. 45. 'A Member of Parliament', Review of the question concerning the government of the British possessions in India; with the heads of a plan proposed (nd., ?1783), 8.
69. 46. Harris, '"American Idols"', 138.
70. 47. For changing patterns of British overseas trade see R.P. Thomas and D.N. McCloskey, 'Overseas Trade and Empire 1700-1800', in Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey (eds.), The Economic History of Britain since 1700. Volume 1: 1700-1860 (Cambridge, 1981), 90-3. The extent to which British capital was being 'diverted' from European to colonial trades was a matter of fierce debate among contemporary economic thinkers See, for example, Thomas Pownall, A Letter from Governor Pownall to Adam Smith. LLD, FRS, being an examination of several points of doctrine, laid down in his 'Inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations' ( 1776), 40-1. Pownall disagreed with Smith about the debilitating effects of monopolistic colonial trading arrangements and declared, quite correctly, that the statistics revealed 'no deprivation, but an encreased state of our European trade; and at the same time an immense multiplied encrease of our colony trade, and of every branch of commerce connected with it' (41).
71. 47. For changing patterns of British overseas trade see R.P. Thomas and D.N. McCloskey, 'Overseas Trade and Empire 1700-1800', in Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey (eds.), The Economic History of Britain since 1700. Volume 1: 1700-1860 (Cambridge, 1981), 90-3. The extent to which British capital was being 'diverted' from European to colonial trades was a matter of fierce debate among contemporary economic thinkers See, for example, Thomas Pownall, A Letter from Governor Pownall to Adam Smith. LLD, FRS, being an examination of several points of doctrine, laid down in his 'Inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations' ( 1776), 40-1. Pownall disagreed with Smith about the debilitating effects of monopolistic colonial trading arrangements and declared, quite correctly, that the statistics revealed 'no deprivation, but an encreased state of our European trade; and at the same time an immense multiplied encrease of our colony trade, and of every branch of commerce connected with it' (41).
72. 48. Jack P. Greene, 'The Seven Years' War and the American Revolution: The Causal Relationship Reconsidered', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, VIII (1980), 85-6. For the argument that the focus of British overseas attention underwent a decisive shift from the West Indies to North America following the capture of Louisbourg and the acquisition of Cape Breton in 1745 see Baugh 'Maritime Strength and Atlantic Commerce', 210-11. Cape Breton was handed back to France in 1748 in exchange for Madras.
73. 48. Jack P. Greene, 'The Seven Years' War and the American Revolution: The Causal Relationship Reconsidered', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, VIII (1980), 85-6. For the argument that the focus of British overseas attention underwent a decisive shift from the West Indies to North America following the capture of Louisbourg and the acquisition of Cape Breton in 1745 see Baugh 'Maritime Strength and Atlantic Commerce', 210-11. Cape Breton was handed back to France in 1748 in exchange for Madras.
74. 49. Thomas Mortimer, The Elements of Commerce, Politics and Finance in Three Treatises on those Important Subjects (1780, reprinted from the 1772 edition), 131.
75. 50. For a comparison of the late-eighteenth century contributions of the West Indies and India to British economic strength which highlights the continuing greater importance of the former see P.J. Marshall, 'The Moral Swing to the East: British Humanitarianism, India, and the West Indies', in Kenneth Ballhatchet and John Harrison (eds.), East India Company Studies: Papers Presented to Professor Sir Cyril Philips (Hong Kong, 1986), 75-6.
76. 51. M.E. Yapp, '"The Brightest Jewel": The Origins of a Phrase', in ibid., 31-68.
77. 51. M.E. Yapp, '"The Brightest Jewel": The Origins of a Phrase', in ibid., 31-68.
78. 52. Mortimer, Elements of Commerce, Politics andi Finance, 131, 162, 170. Adam Smith, with a critical eye upon monopoly trading arrangements, was of the opinion that Europe 'has hitherto derived much less advantage from its commerce from the East Indies, than that with America' (Wealth of Nations, eds. Campbell, Skinner and Todd, 1, 448-9).
79. 53. William Fullarton, A View of English Interests in India: and an account of the military operations in the southern parts of the peninsula ... (1788), 71-2. Fullarton had been Commander-in-Chief of the Madras army.
80. 54. See, for example, the works cited in notes 33 and 35.
81. 55. Wilson, Sense of the People, 158-60.
82. 56. David Hancock, Citizens of the World: London Merchants and the Integration of the British Atlantic Community, 1735-1785 (Cambridge, 1995).
83. 57. Richard Middleton, The Bells of Victory: The Pitt-Newcastle Ministry and the Conduct of the Seven Years War (Cambridge, 1985), 77.
84. 58. 'Substance of a late conversation held by the Earl of C[hatha]m', BL, Additional MSS 32977, f.41.
85. 59. Rochford to Lord Gower, 10 Oct. 1772, PRO 30/29/1/14 (Granville papers), f.667: Walpole to Sir Horace Mann. 4 Nov. 1772, The Yale Edition of Horace Walpole's Correspondence, ed. W.S. Lewis (48 vols, 1939-84), XXIII, 441).
86. 60. H. M. Scott, British Foreign Policy in the Age of the American Revolution (Oxford, 1990), 11-13, 40.
87. 61. For comparisons between the responses in the east and west see H.V. Bowen, Elites. Enterprise and the Making of the British Overseas Empire, 1688-1775 (Basingstoke, 1996), 26-8, 183-93.
88. 62. For the Pratt (later Camden)-Yorke opinion in its East Indian context see Huw V. Bowen, 'A Question of Sovereignty? The Bengal Land Revenue Issue, 1765-7', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XVI (1988), 155-71. For the later application of the opinion in a North American context see T.P. Abernethy, Western Lands and the American Revolution (New York, 1937), 116-19; J.M. Sosin, 'The Yorke-Camden Opinion and American Land Speculators', Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 85 (1961), 38-49; idem, Whitehall and the Wilderness: The Middle West in British Colonial Policy, 1760-1775 (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1961), 229-35, 259-67.
89. 62. For the Pratt (later Camden)-Yorke opinion in its East Indian context see Huw V. Bowen, 'A Question of Sovereignty? The Bengal Land Revenue Issue, 1765-7', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XVI (1988), 155-71. For the later application of the opinion in a North American context see T.P. Abernethy, Western Lands and the American Revolution (New York, 1937), 116-19; J.M. Sosin, 'The Yorke-Camden Opinion and American Land Speculators', Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 85 (1961), 38-49; idem, Whitehall and the Wilderness: The Middle West in British Colonial Policy, 1760-1775 (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1961), 229-35, 259-67.
90. 62. For the Pratt (later Camden)-Yorke opinion in its East Indian context see Huw V. Bowen, 'A Question of Sovereignty? The Bengal Land Revenue Issue, 1765-7', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XVI (1988), 155-71. For the later application of the opinion in a North American context see T.P. Abernethy, Western Lands and the American Revolution (New York, 1937), 116-19; J.M. Sosin, 'The Yorke-Camden Opinion and American Land Speculators', Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 85 (1961), 38-49; idem, Whitehall and the Wilderness: The Middle West in British Colonial Policy, 1760-1775 (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1961), 229-35, 259-67.
91. 62. For the Pratt (later Camden)-Yorke opinion in its East Indian context see Huw V. Bowen, 'A Question of Sovereignty? The Bengal Land Revenue Issue, 1765-7', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XVI (1988), 155-71. For the later application of the opinion in a North American context see T.P. Abernethy, Western Lands and the American Revolution (New York, 1937), 116-19; J.M. Sosin, 'The Yorke-Camden Opinion and American Land Speculators', Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 85 (1961), 38-49; idem, Whitehall and the Wilderness: The Middle West in British Colonial Policy, 1760-1775 (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1961), 229-35, 259-67.
92. 63. P.J. Marshall, 'Parliament and Property Rights in the Late-Eighteenth Century Empire', in John Brewer and Susan Staves (eds.), Early Modern Conceptions of Property (1996), 532.
93. 64. Ibid., 540-1.
94. 65. Proceedings at a Meeting of the British Inhabitants of Fort St. George. Madras on Monday, September 19, 1785 ... (1786), 20.
95. 66. See, for example, the petition of 647 British inhabitants of Bengal against the Supreme Court (BL. India Office Records [hereafter IOR]. Home Miscellaneous Series, 144, 327-33).
96. 67. Clive to Claud Russell, 10 Feb. 1769. National Library of Wales, Clive MSS, 62 (no fol.).
97. 68. Speech of 19 March 1778 on Richmond's motion for withdrawing the troops from North America, William Cobbett, Parliamentary History of England from ... 1066 to 1803 (36 vols, 1806-20), XIX, col. 968.
98. 69. See, for example, on Asia, Malachy Postlethwayt, Great Britain's Commercial Interest (1759), II, 238, cited in Klaus E. Knorr, British Colonial Theories, 1570-1850 (Toronto, 1944), 64-5. On North America, see the comment by the Earl of Chesterfield made on 10 Dec. 1755, R.C. Simmons and P.D.G. Thomas (eds.), Proceedings and Debates of the British Parliaments Respecting North America 1754-1783 (6 vols., New York, 1982-6) I, 114. For a brief discussion of these fears see Miller, Defining the Common Good, 174-6.
99. 69. See, for example, on Asia, Malachy Postlethwayt, Great Britain's Commercial Interest (1759), II, 238, cited in Klaus E. Knorr, British Colonial Theories, 1570-1850 (Toronto, 1944), 64-5. On North America, see the comment by the Earl of Chesterfield made on 10 Dec. 1755, R.C. Simmons and P.D.G. Thomas (eds.), Proceedings and Debates of the British Parliaments Respecting North America 1754-1783 (6 vols., New York, 1982-6) I, 114. For a brief discussion of these fears see Miller, Defining the Common Good, 174-6.
100. 69. See, for example, on Asia, Malachy Postlethwayt, Great Britain's Commercial Interest (1759), II, 238, cited in Klaus E. Knorr, British Colonial Theories, 1570-1850 (Toronto, 1944), 64-5. On North America, see the comment by the Earl of Chesterfield made on 10 Dec. 1755, R.C. Simmons and P.D.G. Thomas (eds.), Proceedings and Debates of the British Parliaments Respecting North America 1754-1783 (6 vols., New York, 1982-6) I, 114. For a brief discussion of these fears see Miller, Defining the Common Good, 174-6.
101. 69. See, for example, on Asia, Malachy Postlethwayt, Great Britain's Commercial Interest (1759), II, 238, cited in Klaus E. Knorr, British Colonial Theories, 1570-1850 (Toronto, 1944), 64-5. On North America, see the comment by the Earl of Chesterfield made on 10 Dec. 1755, R.C. Simmons and P.D.G. Thomas (eds.), Proceedings and Debates of the British Parliaments Respecting North America 1754-1783 (6 vols., New York, 1982-6) I, 114. For a brief discussion of these fears see Miller, Defining the Common Good, 174-6.
102. 70. Captain Joseph Price, A Series of Facts, showing the present political state of India, as far as concerns the powers at war, and the probable consequences of a general pacification in Europe ... (1783), 44.
103. 71. BL. Eg. MSS, 218, 175-6.
104. 72. Thomas Pownall, The Right, Interest, and Duty, of Government, as concerned in the affairs of the East Indies (1773, revised ed. 1781), 4
105. 73. Speech of 26 Nov. 1772, BL. Eg. MSS, 242, 22.
106. 74. See for example, the remarks made by the Earl of Halifax in the House of Lords on 10 Dec. 1755. Simmons and Thomas (eds.), Proceedings and Debates, I, 115, and those made in the same place by Lord Lyttleton on 5 Dec. 1777, Cobbett, Parliamentary History, XIX, cols 493-5.
107. 74. See for example, the remarks made by the Earl of Halifax in the House of Lords on 10 Dec. 1755. Simmons and Thomas (eds.), Proceedings and Debates, I, 115, and those made in the same place by Lord Lyttleton on 5 Dec. 1777, Cobbett, Parliamentary History, XIX, cols 493-5.
108. 75. Smith, Wealth of Nations, II, 605-7.
109. 76. Speech of 7 Feb. 1766, Simmons and Thomas (eds.), Proceedings and Debates, II, 172.
110. 77. Speech of 8 April 1778 during the debate on the state of the nation, Cobbett, Parliamentary History, XIX, col. 1035. For a catalogue of contemporary predictions of impending imperial ruin and national disgrace see Coupland, The American Revolution and the British Empire, 10-28.
111. 77. Speech of 8 April 1778 during the debate on the state of the nation, Cobbett, Parliamentary History, XIX, col. 1035. For a catalogue of contemporary predictions of impending imperial ruin and national disgrace see Coupland, The American Revolution and the British Empire, 10-28.
112. 78. John Campbell, The Present State of Europe (4th ed., 1753), quoted in Miller, Defining the Common Good, 161.
113. 78. John Campbell, The Present State of Europe (4th ed., 1753), quoted in Miller, Defining the Common Good, 161.
114. 79. Richard Price, Observations on the nature of civil liberty, the principles of government. and the justice and polity of the war with America (1776), in D.O. Thomas (ed.), Richard Price: Political Writings (Cambridge, 1992), 57.
115. 80. For the views of these writers who believed that the commercial consequences of the loss of America would be far from disastrous see Vincent T. Harlow, The Founding of the Second British Empire, 1763-1793 (2 vols, 1952 and 1964), I. 198-219. The development of Tucker's ideas is traced in George Shelton, Dean Tucker and Eighteenth-Century Economic and Political Thought (1981).
116. 80. For the views of these writers who believed that the commercial consequences of the loss of America would be far from disastrous see Vincent T. Harlow, The Founding of the Second British Empire, 1763-1793 (2 vols, 1952 and 1964), I. 198-219. The development of Tucker's ideas is traced in George Shelton, Dean Tucker and Eighteenth-Century Economic and Political Thought (1981).
117. 81. 'A well-wisher to the English East India Company' to the Secret Committee of Directors, 4 Feb. 1782. BL, IOR, H/157, p. 329.
118. 82. Quoted in P.J. Cain and A.G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion, 1688-1914 (1993), 102-3.
119. 83. Marie Peters , 'The Myth of William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, Great Imperialist. Part Two: Chatham and Imperial Reorganization, 1763-78', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XXII (1994), 405.
120. 84. The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke, Vol. II: Party. Parliament, and the American Crisis, 1766-1774, ed. Paul Langford (Oxford, 1981), 416.
121. 85. Mortimer, Elements of Commerce, Politics, and Finance, 162-70.
122. 86. Wealth of Nations, II, 630.
123. 87. Speech of 27 Feb. 1769 (BL, Eg. MSS, 218, 134-5). For some of the connections being made by politicians between the eastern and western parts of Britain's overseas empire see Nancy F. Koehn, The Power of Commerce: Economy and Governance in the First British Empire (Ithaca, NY, 1994), 132-8, 206-7.
124. 88. Quoted in Daniel A. Baugh and Alison Gilbert Olson, introduction to Thomas Pownall. The Administration of the Colonies 1768 (New York, 1993), 28.
125. 89. Ibid., 14-15, Miller (Defining the Common Good, 211) points out that the phrase 'one interest' was replaced by 'one empire' in later editions. Pownall's work went throug six editions between 1764 and 1777. For a summary and analysis see Baugh and Olson. 'Introduction', 9-37. See also G.H. Guttridge. 'Thomas Pownall's The Administration of the Colonies: The Six Editions', William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 26 (1969). 31-46.
126. 89. Ibid., 14-15, Miller (Defining the Common Good, 211) points out that the phrase 'one interest' was replaced by 'one empire' in later editions. Pownall's work went throug six editions between 1764 and 1777. For a summary and analysis see Baugh and Olson. 'Introduction', 9-37. See also G.H. Guttridge. 'Thomas Pownall's The Administration of the Colonies: The Six Editions', William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 26 (1969). 31-46.
127. 89. Ibid., 14-15, Miller (Defining the Common Good, 211) points out that the phrase 'one interest' was replaced by 'one empire' in later editions. Pownall's work went throug six editions between 1764 and 1777. For a summary and analysis see Baugh and Olson. 'Introduction', 9-37. See also G.H. Guttridge. 'Thomas Pownall's The Administration of the Colonies: The Six Editions', William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 26 (1969). 31-46.
128. 89. Ibid., 14-15, Miller (Defining the Common Good, 211) points out that the phrase 'one interest' was replaced by 'one empire' in later editions. Pownall's work went throug six editions between 1764 and 1777. For a summary and analysis see Baugh and Olson. 'Introduction', 9-37. See also G.H. Guttridge. 'Thomas Pownall's The Administration of the Colonies: The Six Editions', William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 26 (1969). 31-46.
129. 90. Baugh and Olson, 'Introduction', 23. Pownall was not alone in raising this possibility that might Britain might one day become a province of the empire. See, for example, Harlow, Founding of the Second British Empire, I, 205-6.
130. 90. Baugh and Olson, 'Introduction', 23. Pownall was not alone in raising this possibility that might Britain might one day become a province of the empire. See, for example, Harlow, Founding of the Second British Empire, I, 205-6.
131. 91. See, for example, Anon., An Attempt to Pay off the National Debt by Abolishing the East (1767). For attacks on the 'mercantile system' during this period see R.L. Schuyler, The Fall of the Old Colonial System: A Study in British Free Trade 1770-1870 (New York, 1945), ch. 2: 'The Rise of Anti-imperialism'.
132. 91. See, for example, Anon., An Attempt to Pay off the National Debt by Abolishing the East (1767). For attacks on the 'mercantile system' during this period see R.L. Schuyler, The Fall of the Old Colonial System: A Study in British Free Trade 1770-1870 (New York, 1945), ch. 2: 'The Rise of Anti-imperialism'.
133. 92. For discussion of this in a nineteenth-century context see Ronald Hyam. Britain's Imperial Century 1815-1914: A Study of Empire and Expansion (1976), 31-5.
134. 93. Quoted in Miller, Defining the Common Good, 169.
135. 94. Anon., An Address to the Proprietors of India Stock, showing from the political state of Indonestan the necessity of sending commissioners to regulate their affairs abroad (1769), 30.
136. 95. Quoted in Leland J. Bellot, William Knox: The Life and Thought of an Eighteent-Century Imperialist (Austin, Texas, 1977), 84.
137. 96. Quoted in Koebner, Empire, 179.
138. 97. Quoted in ibid., 179
139. 98. Ibid., 217.
140. 99. Baugh and Olson, 'Introduction', 16. Miller has emphasized the importance that Pownall attached to governing the empire in accord with a 'common interest'. For analysis of the development of this central element in Pownall's writing see Miller, Defining the Common Good, 202-13.
141. 99. Baugh and Olson, 'Introduction', 16. Miller has emphasized the importance that Pownall attached to governing the empire in accord with a 'common interest'. For analysis of the development of this central element in Pownall's writing see Miller, Defining the Common Good, 202-13.
142. 100. Radical economic and constitutional thought on the empire is summarised in Schuyler, The Fall of the Old Colonial System, 38-79, and Harlow, The Founding of the Second British Empire, I, 211-14.
143. 100. Radical economic and constitutional thought on the empire is summarised in Schuyler, The Fall of the Old Colonial System, 38-79, and Harlow, The Founding of the Second British Empire, I, 211-14.
144. 101. For Shelburne's attempt at 'undisguised reconciliation, framed on the most comprehensive bottom, and built on the most solid and permanent foundation', see Cobbett, Parliamentary History, XIX, col. 1051.
145. 102. Ibid. For the context for Shelburne's remarks and the development of his ideas on imperial policy see, Harlow, The Founding of the Second British Empire, I, 226-34.
146. 102. Ibid. For the context for Shelburne's remarks and the development of his ideas on imperial policy see, Harlow, The Founding of the Second British Empire, I, 226-34.
147. 103. Clive to Claud Russell, 10 Feb. 1769, NLW, Clive MSS, 62 (no fol.).
148. 104. Young, Political Essays, 552.
149. 105. Bowen, 'A Question of Sovereignty?'
150. 106. Price, Observations on the Nature of Civil Liberty, 38.
151. 107. See, for example, Joseph Priestley's views on this as outlined in Miller. Defining the Common Good, 239-40.
152. 108. Eliga H. Gould, 'American Independence and Britain's Counter-revolution', Past and Present, 154 (1997), 140.
153. 109. C.A. Bayly, Imperical Meridian: The British Empire and the World, 1780-1830 (London, 1989), 100-32.
154. 110. Quoted in Coupland, The American Revolution and British Empire, 180.