Neuroimaging of ischemic stroke with CT and MRI: Advancing towards physiology-based diagnosis and therapy

Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy

Volumn 7, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 29-48

  Hakimelahi, Reza ^a   González, R Gilberto ^a  

^a MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Acute ischemic stroke; Advanced neuroimaging; Computed tomography angiography; Computed tomography perfusion; Core; Endovascular treatment; Intravenous tPA; Magnetic resonance diffusion; Magnetic resonance perfusion; Penumbra; Stroke trial

Indexed keywords

DESMOTEPLASE; FIBRINOLYTIC AGENT; PLACEBO; SARUPLASE; TISSUE PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR;

ACUTE CEREBRAL THROMBOEMBOLISM; ANTERIOR CEREBRAL ARTERY; ARTICLE; BASILAR ARTERY; BLEEDING; BRAIN BLOOD FLOW; BRAIN CELL; BRAIN CIRCULATION; BRAIN INFARCTION; CAUDATE NUCLEUS; CELL LOSS; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CLINICAL TRIAL; COLLATERAL CIRCULATION; COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHIC ANGIOGRAPHY; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DEVICE THERAPY; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DRUG DOSE ESCALATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG SAFETY; ENDOVASCULAR SURGERY; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FIBRINOLYTIC THERAPY; GLOBUS PALLIDUS; HEART CATHETERIZATION; HUMAN; INTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY; ISCHEMIC PENUMBRA; MAGNETIC RESONANCE ANGIOGRAPHY; MECHANICAL THROMBOLYSIS; MIDDLE CEREBRAL ARTERY; MIDDLE CEREBRAL ARTERY OCCLUSION; MORTALITY; NEUROIMAGING; NONCONTRAST COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OCCLUSIVE CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PERFUSION WEIGHTED IMAGING; PROGNOSIS; RECANALIZATION; STABLE PENUMBRA; STROKE; THROMBECTOMY; VERTEBRAL ARTERY; ACUTE DISEASE; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; EUROPE; METHODOLOGY; PATHOLOGY; REVIEW; TIME; TREATMENT OUTCOME; UNITED STATES;

ACUTE DISEASE; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; EUROPE; EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; STROKE; TIME FACTORS; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED; TREATMENT OUTCOME; UNITED STATES;

EID: 60549101054     PISSN: 14779072     EISSN: 17448344     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/14779072.7.1.29     Document Type: Article

References (136)

1. Rosamond W, Flegal K, Furie K et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics - 2008 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation 117(4), e25-e146 (2008).
2. NINDS Group. Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. N. Engl. J. Med. 333, 1581-1587 (1995).
3. Gonzalez RG, Hirsch J, Koroshetz W, Lev M, Schaefer P. Acute Ischemic Stroke: Imaging and Intervention. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany (2006).
4. Lisboa RC, Jovanovic BD, Alberts MJ. Analysis of the safety and efficacy of intra-arterial thrombolytic therapy in ischemic stroke. Stroke 33(12), 2866-2871 (2002).
5. Furlan A, Higashida R, Wechsler L et al. Intra-arterial prourokinase for acute ischemic stroke. The PROACT II study: a randomized controlled trial. Prolyse in Acute Cerebral Thromboembolism. JAMA 282(21), 2003-2011 (1999).
6. Smith WS, Sung G, Starkman S et al. Safety and efficacy of mechanical embolectomy in acute ischemic stroke: results of the MERCI trial. Stroke 36(7), 1432-1438 (2005).
7. Katzan IL, Furlan AJ, Lloyd LE et al. Use of tissue-type plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke: the Cleveland area experience. JAMA 283(9), 1151-1158 (2000).
8. Cocho D, Belvis R, Marti-Fabregas J et al. Reasons for exclusion from thrombolytic therapy following acute ischemic stroke. Neurology 64(4), 719-720 (2005).
9. Smith MA, Doliszny KM, Shahar E, McGovern PG, Arnett DK, Luepker RV. Delayed hospital arrival for acute stroke: the Minnesota Stroke Survey. Ann. Intern. Med. 129(3), 190-196 (1998).
10. Lev MH, Farkas J, Rodriguez VR et al. CT angiography in the rapid triage of patients with hyperacute stroke to intraarterial thrombolysis: accuracy in the detection of large vessel thrombus. J. Comput. Assist. Tomogr. 25(4), 520-528 (2001).
11. Lo EH, Dalkara T, Moskowitz MA. Mechanisms, challenges and opportunities in stroke. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 4(5), 399-415 (2003).
12. Baron JC. Perfusion thresholds in human cerebral ischemia: historical perspective and therapeutic implications. Cerebrovasc. Dis. 11(Suppl. 1), 2-8 (2001).
13. Ginsberg MD, Pulsinelli WA. The ischemic penumbra, injury thresholds, and the therapeutic window for acute stroke. Ann. Neurol. 36(4), 553-554 (1994).
14. Hossmann KA. Viability thresholds and the penumbra of focal ischemia. Ann. Neurol. 36(4), 557-565 (1994).
15. Markus R, Reutens DC, Kazui S et al. Hypoxic tissue in ischaemic stroke: persistence and clinical consequences of spontaneous survival. Brain 127(Pt 6), 1427-1436 (2004).
16. Jones TH, Morawetz RB, Crowell RM et al. Thresholds of focal cerebral ischemia in awake monkeys. J. Neurosurg. 54(6), 773-782 (1981).
17. Heiss WD, Kracht LW, Thiel A, Grond M, Pawlik G. Penumbral probability thresholds of cortical flumazenil binding and blood flow predicting tissue outcome in patients with cerebral ischaemia. Brain 124(Pt 1), 20-29 (2001).
18. Baron JC. Mapping the ischaemic penumbra with PET: implications for acute stroke treatment. Cerebrovasc. Dis. 9(4), 193-201 (1999).
19. Baron JC. Mapping the ischaemic penumbra with PET: a new approach. Brain 124(Pt 1), 2-4 (2001).
20. Caplan LR. Treatment of acute stroke: still struggling. JAMA 292(15), 1883-1885 (2004).
21. Barber PA, Demchuk AM, Zhang J, Buchan AM. Validity and reliability of a quantitative computed tomography score in predicting outcome of hyperacute stroke before thrombolytic therapy. ASPECTS Study Group. Alberta Stroke Programme Early CT Score. Lancet 355(9216), 1670-1674 (2000).
22. Choi JY, Pary JK, Alexandrov AV et al. Does dinical-CT 'mismatch' predict early response to treatment with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator? Cerebrovasc. Dis. 22(5-6), 384-388 (2006).
23. Davalos A, Blanco M, Pedraza S et al. The clinical-DWI mismatch: a new diagnostic approach to the brain tissue at risk of infarction. Neurology 62(12), 2187-2192 (2004).
24. Torres-Mozqueda F, He J, Yeh IB et al. An acute ischemic stroke classification instrument that includes CT or MR angiography: the Boston Acute Stroke Imaging Scale. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 29(6), 1111-1117 (2008).
25. Lev MH, Nichols SJ. Computed tomographic angiography and computed tomographic perfusion imaging of hyperacute stroke. Top. Magn. Reson. Imaging 11(5), 273-287 (2000).
26. Schellinger PD, Fiebach JB, Hacke W. Imaging-based decision making in thrombolytic therapy for ischemic stroke: present status. Stroke 34(2), 575-583 (2003).
27. Warach S. Tissue viability thresholds in acute stroke: the 4-factor model. Stroke 32(11), 2460-2461 (2001).
28. Kidwell CS, Chalela JA, Saver JL et al. Comparison of MRI and CT for detection of acute intracerebral hemorrhage. JAMA 292(15), 1823-1830 (2004).
29. Schwartz RB. Helical (spiral) CT in neuroradiologic diagnosis. Radiol. Clin. North Am. 33(5), 981-995 (1995).
30. Hunter GJ, Hamberg LM, Ponzo JA et al. Assessment of cerebral perfusion and arterial anatomy in hyperacute stroke with three-dimensional functional CT: early clinical results. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 19(1), 29-37 (1998).
31. Korogi Y, Takahashi M, Mabuchi N et al. Intracranial vascular stenosis and occlusion: diagnostic accuracy of three-dimensional, fourier transform, time-of-flight MR angiography. Radiology 193(1), 187-193 (1994).
32. Stock KW, Radue EW, Jacob AL, Bao XS, Steinbrich W. Intracranial arteries: prospective blinded comparative study of MR angiography and DSA in 50 patients. Radiology 195(2), 451-456 (1995).
33. Thijs VN, Lansberg MG, Beaulieu C, Marks MP, Moseley ME, Albers GW. Is early ischemic lesion volume on diffusion-weighted imaging an independent predictor of stroke outcome? A multivariable analysis. Stroke 31(11), 2597-2602 (2000).
34. Engelter ST, Provenzale JM, Petrella JR, De Long DM, Alberts MJ. Infarct volume on apparent diffusion coefficient maps correlates with length of stay and outcome after middle cerebral artery stroke. Cerebrovasc. Dis. 15(3), 188-191 (2003).
35. Mullins ME, Schaefer PW, Sorensen AG et al. CT and conventional and diffusion-weighted MR imaging in acute stroke: study in 691 patients at presentation to the emergency department. Radiology 224(2), 353-360 (2002).
36. Ay H, Buonanno FS, Rordorf G et al. Normal diffusion-weighted MRI during stroke-like deficits. Neurology 52(9), 1784-1792 (1999).
37. Marks MP, de Crespigny A, Lentz D, Enzmann DR, Albers GW, Moseley ME. Acute and chronic stroke: navigated spin-echo diffusion-weighted MR imaging. Radiology 199(2), 403-408 (1996).
38. Schaefer PW, Grant PE, Gonzalez G. Diffusion-weighted MR imaging of the Brain. Radiology 217, 331-345 (2000).
39. Moonen CT, Pekar J, de Vleeschouwer MH, van Gelderen P, van Zijl PC, Des Pres D. Restricted and anisotropic displacement of water in healthy cat brain and in stroke studied by NMR diffusion imaging. Magn. Reson. Med. 19(2), 327-332 (1991).
40. Warach S, Gaa J, Siewert B, Wielopolski P, Edelman RR. Acute human stroke studied by whole brain echo planar diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging. Ann. Neurol. 37(2), 231-241 (1995).
41. Schlaug G, Siewert B, Benfield A, Edelman RR, Warach S. Time course of the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) abnormality in human stroke. Neurology 49(1), 113-119 (1997).
42. Lutsep HL, Albers GW, DeCrespigny A, Kamat GN, Marks MP, Moseley ME. Clinical utility of diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in the assessment of ischemic stroke. Ann. Neurol. 41(5), 574-580 (1997).
43. Grant PE, He J, Halpern EF et al. Frequency and clinical context of decreased apparent diffusion coefficient reversal in the human brain. Radiology 221(1), 43-50 (2001).
44. Kidwell CS, Saver JL, Starkman S et al. Late secondary ischemic injury in patients receiving intraarterial thrombolysis. Ann. Neurol. 52(6), 698-703 (2002).
45. Schaefer PW, Hassankhani A, Putman C et al. Characterization and evolution of diffusion MR imaging abnormalities in stroke patients undergoing intra-arterial thrombolysis. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 25(6), 951-957 (2004).
46. Schlaug G, Benfield A, Baird AE et al. The ischemic penumbra: operationally defined by diffusion and perfusion MRI. Neurology 53(7), 1528-1537 (1999).
47. Grond M, von Kummer R, Sobesky J et al. Early x-ray hypoattenuation of brain parenchyma indicates extended critical hypoperfusion in acute stroke. Stroke 31(1), 133-139 (2000).
48. Eastwood JD, Lev MH, Azhari T et al. CT petfusion scanning with deconvolution analysis: pilot study in patients with acute middle cerebral artery stroke. Radiology 222(1), 227-236 (2002).
49. Karonen JO, Liu Y, Vanninen RL et al. Combined perfusion- and diffusion-weighted MR imaging in acute ischemic stroke during the 1st week: a longitudinal study. Radiology 217(3), 886-894 (2000).
50. Yamada K, Wu O, Gonzalez KG et al. Magnetic resonance perfusion-weighted imaging of acute cerebral infarction: effect of the calculation methods and underlying vasculopathy. Stroke 33(1), 87-94 (2002).
51. Ostergaard L, Weisskoff RM, Chesler DA, Gyldensted C, Rosen BR. High resolution of cerebral blood flow using intravascular tracer bolus passages. Part I: mathematical approach and statistical analysis. Magn. Reson. Med. 36(5), 715-725 (1996).
52. Rordorf G, Koroshetz WJ, Copen WA et al. Regional ischemia and ischemic injury in patients with acute middle cerebral artery stroke as defined by early diffusion-weighted and perfusion-weighted MRI. Stroke 29(5), 939-943 (1998).
53. Schaefer PW, Ozsunar Y, He J et al. Assessing tissue viability with MR diffusion and perfusion imaging. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 24(3), 436-443 (2003).
54. Thijs VN, Adami A, Neumann-Haefelin T, Moseley ME, Marks MP, Albers GW. Relationship between severity of MR perfusion deficit and DWI lesion evolution. Neurology 57(7), 1205-1211 (2001).
55. Ezzeddine MA, Lev MH, McDonald CT et al. CT angiography with whole brain perfused blood volume imaging: added clinical value in the assessment of acute stroke. Stroke 33(4), 959-966 (2002).
56. Klotz E, Konig M. Perfusion measurements of the brain: using the dynamic CT for the quantitative assessment of cerebral ischemia in acute stroke. Eur. J. Radiol. 30(3), 170-184 (1999).
57. Koenig M, Klotz E, Luka B, Venderink DJ, Spittler JF, Heuser L. Perfusion CT of the brain: diagnostic approach for early detection of ischemic stroke. Radiology 209(1), 85-93 (1998).
58. Lee KH, Cho SJ, Byun HS et al. Triphasic perfusion computed tomography in acute middle cerebral artery stroke: a correlation with angiographic findings. Arch. Neurol. 57(7), 990-999 (2000).
59. Nabavi DG, Cenic A, Henderson S, Gelb AW, Lee TY. Perfusion mapping using computed tomography allows accurate prediction of cerebral infarction in experimental brain ischemia. Stroke 32(1), 175-183 (2001).
60. Rother J, Jonetz-Mentzel L, Fiala A et al. Hemodynamic assessment of acute stroke using dynamic single-slice computed tomographic perfusion imaging. Arch. Neurol. 57(8), 1161-1166 (2000).
61. Wildermuth S, Knauth M, Brandt T, Winter R, Sartor K, Hacke W. Role of CT angiography in patient selection for thrombolytic therapy in acute hemispheric stroke. Stroke 29(5), 935-938 (1998).
62. Kase CS, Furlan AJ, Wechsler LR et al. Cerebral hemorrhage after intra-arterial thrombolysis for ischemic stroke: the PROACT II trial. Neurology 57(9), 1603-1610 (2001).
63. Berzin T, Lev M, Goodman D et al. CT perfusion imaging versus MR diffusion weighted imaging: prediction of final infarct size in hyperacute stroke [abstract]. Stroke 32, 317 (2001).
64. Cenic A, Nabavi DG, Craen RA, Gelb AW, Lee TY. Dynamic CT measurement of cerebral blood flow: a validation study. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 20(1), 63-73 (1999).
65. Wintermark M, Reichhart M, Thiran JP et al. Prognostic accuracy of cerebral blood flow measurement by perfusion computed tomography, at the time of emergency room admission, in acute stroke patients. Ann. Neurol. 51(4), 417-432 (2002).
66. Eastwood JD, Lev MH, Wintermark M et al. Correlation of early dynamic CT perfusion imaging with whole-brain MR diffusion and perfusion imaging in acute hemispheric stroke. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 24(9), 1869-1875 (2003).
67. Wintermark M, Reichhart M, Cuisenaire O et al. Comparison of admission perfusion computed tomography and qualitative diffusion- and perfusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in acute stroke patients. Stroke 33(8), 2025-2031 (2002).
68. Schramm P, Schellinger PD, Klotz E et al. Comparison of perfusion computed tomography and computed tomography angiography source images with perfusion-weighted imaging and diffusion-weighted imaging in patients with acute stroke of less than 6 hours' duration. Stroke 35(7), 1652-1658 (2004).
69. Shetty SK, Lev MH. CT perfusion in acute stroke. Neuroimaging Clin. N. Am. 15(3), 481-501, ix (2005).
70. Wintermark M, Albers GW, Alexandrov AV et al. Acute stroke imaging research roadmap. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 29(5), e23-e30 (2008).
71. Adams HP Jr, Brott TG, Furlan AJ et al. Guidelines for thrombolytic therapy for acute stroke: a supplement to the guidelines for the management of patients with acute ischemic stroke. A statement for healthcare professionals from a Special Writing Group of the Stroke Council, American Heart Association. Circulation 94(5), 1167-1174 (1996).
72. Adams HP Jr, del Zoppo G, Alberts MJ et al. Guidelines for the early management of adults with ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council, Clinical Cardiology Council, Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention Council, and the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease and Quality of Care Outcomes in Research Interdisciplinary Working Groups: the American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline as an educational tool for neurologists. Stroke 38(5), 1655-1711 (2007).
73. Hacke W, Donnan G, Fieschi C et al. Association of outcome with early stroke treatment: pooled analysis of ATLANTIS, ECASS, and NINDS rt-PA stroke trials. Lancet 363(9411), 768-774 (2004).
74. Wardlaw JM. Overview of Cochrane thrombolysis meta-analysis. Neurology 57(5 Suppl. 2), S69-S76 (2001).
75. Lansberg MG, Albers GW, Beaulieu C, Marks MP. Comparison of diffusion-weighted MRI and CT in acute stroke. Neurology 54(8), 1557-1561 (2000).
76. Grond M, Stenzel C, Schmulling S et al. Early intravenous thrombolysis for acute ischemic stroke in a community-based approach. Stroke 29(8), 1544-1549 (1998).
77. Chiu D, Krieger D, Villar-Cordova C et al. Intravenous tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke: feasibility, safety, and efficacy in the first year of clinical practice. Stroke 29(1), 18-22 (1998).
78. Trouillas P, Nighoghossian N, Derex L et al. Thrombolysis with intravenous rtPA in a series of 100 cases of acute carotid territory stroke: determination of etiological, topographic, and radiological outcome factors. Stroke 29(12), 2529-2540 (1998).
79. Tanne D, Bates VE, Verro P et al. Initial clinical experience with IV tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke: a multicenter survey. The t-PA Stroke Survey Group. Neurology 53(2), 424-427 (1999).
80. Akins PT, Delemos C, Wentworth D, Byer J, Schorer SJ, Atkinson RP, Can emergency department physicians safely and effectively initiate thrombolysis for acute ischemic stroke? Neurology 55(12), 1801-1805 (2000).
81. Wang DZ, Rose JA, Honings DS, Garwacki DJ, Milbrandt JC. Treating acute stroke patients with intravenous tPA. The OSF stroke network experience. Stroke 31(1), 77-81 (2000).
82. Lopez-Yunez AM, Bruno A, Williams LS, Yilmaz E, Zurru C, Biller J. Protocol violations in community-based rTPA stroke treatment are associated with symptomatic intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 32(1), 12-16 (2001).
83. Bravata DM, Kim N, Concato J, Krumholz HM, Brass LM. Thrombolysis for acute stroke in routine clinical practice. Arch. Intern. Med. 162(17), 1994-2001 (2002).
84. Merino JG, Silver B, Wong E et al. Extending tissue plasminogen activator use to community and rural stroke patients. Stroke 33(1), 141-146 (2002).
85. Tanne D, Kasner SE, Demchuk AM et al. Markers of increased risk of intracerebral hemorrhage after intravenous recombinant tissue plasminogen activator therapy for acute ischemic stroke in clinical practice: the Multicenter rt-PA Stroke Survey. Circulation 105(14), 1679-1685 (2002).
86. Albers GW, Amarenco P, Easton JD, Sacco RL, Teal P. Antithrombotic and thrombolytic therapy for ischemic stroke: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 126(3 Suppl.), S483-S512 (2004).
87. Kleindorfer D, Lindsell CJ, Brass L, Koroshetz W, Broderick JP. National US estimates of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator use: ICD-9 codes substantially underestimate. Stroke 39{3), 924-928 (2008).
88. Lee KY, Han SW, Kim SH et al. Early recanalization after intravenous administration of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator as assessed by pre- and post-thrombolytic angiography in acute ischemic stroke patients. Stroke 38(1), 192-193 (2007).
89. Demaerschalk BM, Yip TR. Economic benefit of increasing utilization of intravenous tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke in the United States. Stroke 36(11), 2500-2503 (2005).
90. Kleindorfer D, Kissela B, Schneider A et al. Eligibility for recombinant tissue plasminogen activator in acute ischemic stroke: a population-based study. Stroke 35(2), e27-e29 (2004).
91. Hacke W, Kaste M, Bluhmki E et al. Thrombolysis with alteplase 3 to 4.5 hours after acute ischemic stroke. N. Engl. J. Med. 359(13), 1317-1329 (2008).
92. del Zoppo GJ, Poeck K, Pessin MS et al. Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator in acute thrombotic and embolic stroke. Ann. Neurol. 32(1), 78-86. (1992).
93. Ingall TJ, O'Fallon WM, Asplund K et al. Findings from the reanalysis of the NINDS tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke treatment trial. Stroke 35(10), 2418-2424 (2004).
94. Wolpert SM, Bruckmann H, Greenlee R, Wechsler L, Pessin MS, del Zoppo GJ. Neuroradiologic evaluation of patients with acute stroke treated with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator. The rt-PA Acute Stroke Study Group. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 14(1), 3-13 (1993).
95. Sims JR, Rordorf G, Smith EE et al. Arterial occlusion revealed by CT angiography predicts NIH stroke score and acute outcomes after IV tPA treatment. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 26(2), 246-251 (2005).
96. von Kummer R, Holle R, Rosin L, Forsting M, Hacke W. Does arterial recanalization improve outcome in carotid territory stroke? Stroke 26(4), 581-587 (1995).
97. Saqqur M, Uchino K, Demchuk AM et al. Site of arterial occlusion identified by transcranial Doppler predicts the response to intravenous thrombolysis for stroke. Stroke 38(3), 948-954 (2007).
98. del Zoppo GJ, Higashida RT, Furlan AJ, Pessin MS, Rowley HA, Gent M. PROACT: a Phase II randomized trial of recombinant pro-urokinase by direct arterial delivery in acute middle cerebral artery stroke. PROACT Investigators. Prolyse in Acute Cerebral Thromboembolism. Stroke 29(1), 4-11 (1998).
99. Adams HP Jr, Adams RJ, Brott T et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with ischemic stroke: a scientific statement from the Stroke Council of the American Stroke Association. Stroke 34(4), 1056-1083 (2003).
100. Adams H, Adams R, Del Zoppo G, Goldstein LB. Guidelines for the early management of patients with ischemic stroke: 2005 guidelines update a scientific statement from the Stroke Council of the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 36(4), 916-923 (2005).
101. Qureshi AI. New grading system for angiographic evaluation of arterial occlusions and recanalization response to intra-arterial thrombolysis in acute ischemic stroke. Neurosurgery 50(6), 1405-1414 (2002).
102. Kerber CW, Barr JD, Berger RM, Chopko BW. Snare retrieval of intracranial thrombus in patients with acute stroke. J. Vasc. Interv. Radiol. 13(12), 1269-1274 (2002).
103. Qureshi AI, Siddiqui AM, Kim SH et al. Reocclusion of recanalized arteries during intra-arterial thrombolysis for acute ischemic stroke. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 25(2), 322-328 (2004).
104. Ueda T, Sakaki S, Nochide I, Kumon Y, Kohno K, Ohta S. Angioplasty after intra-arterial thrombolysis for acute occlusion of intracranial arteries. Stroke 29(12), 2568-2574 (1998).
105. Nakayama T, Tanaka K, Kaneko M, Yokoyama T, Uemura K. Thrombolysis and angioplasty for acute occlusion of intracranial vertebrobasilar arteries. Report of three cases. J. Neurosurg. 88(5), 919-922 (1998).
106. Ringer AJ, Qureshi AI, Fessler RD, Guterman LR, Hopkins LN. Angioplasty of intracranial occlusion resistant to thrombolysis in acute ischemic stroke. Neurosurgery 48(6), 1282-1290 (2001).
107. Ramee SR, Subramanian R, Felberg RA et al. Catheter-based treatment for patients with acute ischemic stroke ineligible for intravenous thrombolysis. Stroke 35(5), e109-e111 (2004).
108. Versnick EJ, Do HM, Albers GW, Tong C, Marks MP. Mechanical thrombectomy for acute stroke. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 26(4), 875-879 (2005).
109. Mahon BR, Nesbit GM, Barnwell SL et al. North American clinical experience with the EKOS MicroLysUS infusion catheter for the treatment of embolic stroke. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 24(3), 534-538 (2003).
110. Berlis A, Lutsep H, Barnwell S et al. Mechanical thrombolysis in acute ischemic stroke with endovascular photoacoustic recanalization. Stroke 35(5), 1112-1116 (2004).
111. Bellon RJ, Putman CM, Budzik RF, Pergolizzi RS, Reinking GF, Norbash AM. Rheolytic thrombectomy of the occluded internal carotid artery in the setting of acute ischemic stroke. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 22(3), 526-530 (2001).
112. Barnwell SL, Clark WM, Nguyen TT, O'Neill OR, Wynn ML, Coull BM. Safety and efficacy of delayed intraarterial urokinase-therapy with mechanical clot disruption for thromboembolic stroke, AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 15(10), 1817-1822 (1994).
113. Smith WS, Sung G, Saver J et al. Mechanical thrombectomy for acute ischemic stroke: final results of the Multi MERCI trial. Stroke 39(4), 1205-1212 (2008).
114. Bose A, Henkes H, Alfke K et al. The Penumbra System: a mechanical device for the treatment of acute stroke due to thromboembolism. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 29(7), 1409-1413 (2008).
115. Sorensen AG, Buonanno FS, Gonzalez RG et al. Hyperacute stroke: evaluation with combined multisection diffusion-weighted and hemodynamically weighted echo-planar MR imaging. Radiology 199(2), 391-401 (1996).
116. Sunshine JL, Tarr RW, Lanzieri CF, Landis DMD, Selman WR, Lewin JS. Hyperacute stroke: ultrafast MR imaging to triage patients prior to therapy. Radiology 212, 325-332 (1999).
117. Warach S. Measurement of the ischemic penumbra with MRI: it's about time. Stroke 34(10), 2533-2534 (2003).
118. Barber PA, Darby DG, Desmond PM et al. Prediction of stroke outcome with echoplanar perfusion- and diffusion-weighted MRI. Neurology 51(2), 418-426 (1998).
119. Rohl L, Ostergaard L, Simonsen CZ et al. Viability thresholds of ischemic penumbra of hyperacute stroke defined by perfusion-weighted MRI and apparent diffusion coefficient. Stroke 32(5), 1140-1146 (2001).
120. Grandin CB, Duprez TP, Smith AM et al. Usefulness of magnetic resonance-derived quantitative measurements of cerebral blood flow and volume in prediction of infarct growth in hyperacute stroke. Stroke 32(5), 1147-1153 (2001).
121. Wittsack HJ, Ritzl A, Fink GR et al. MR imaging in acute stroke: diffusion-weighted and perfusion imaging parameters for predicting infarct size. Radiology 222(2), 397-403 (2002).
122. Grandin CB. Assessment of brain perfusion with MRI: methodology and application to acute stroke. Neuroradiology 45(11), 755-766 (2003).
123. Ribo M, Molina CA, Rovira A et al. Safety and efficacy of intravenous tissue plasminogen activator stroke treatment in the 3- to 6-hour window using multimodal transcranial Doppler/MRI selection protocol. Stroke 36(3), 602-606 (2005).
124. Albers GW, Thijs VN, Wechsler L et al. Magnetic resonance imaging profiles predict clinical response to early reperfusion: the diffusion and perfusion imaging evaluation for understanding stroke evolution (DEFUSE) study. Ann. Neurol. 60(5), 508-517 (2006).
125. Hacke W, Albers G, Al-Rawi Y et al. The Desmoteplase in Acute Ischemic Stroke Trial (DIAS): a Phase II MRI-based 9-hour window acute stroke thrombolysis trial with intravenous desmoteplase. Stroke 36(1), 66-73 (2005).
126. Marks MP, Olivot JM, Kemp S et al. Patients with acute stroke treated with intravenous tPA 3-6 hours after stroke onset: correlations between MR angiography findings and perfusion- and diffusion-weighted imaging in the DEFUSE study. Radiology 249(2), 614-623 (2008).
127. Furlan AJ, Eyding D, Albers GW et al. Dose Escalation of Desmoteplase for Acute Ischemic Stroke (DEDAS): evidence of safety and efficacy 3 to 9 hours after stroke onset. Stroke 37(5), 1227-1231 (2006).
128. Baron JC, von Kummer R, del Zoppo GJ. Treatment of acute ischemic stroke. Challenging the concept of a rigid and universal time window. Stroke 26(12), 2219-2221 (1995).
129. Saver JL. Time is brain - quantified. Stroke 37(1), 263-266 (2006).
130. von Kummer R, Hacke W. Safety and efficacy of intravenous tissue plasminogen activator and heparin in acute middle cerebral artery stroke. Stroke 23(5), 646-652 (1992).
131. Christoforidis GA, Mohammad Y, Kehagias D, Avutu B, Slivka AP. Angiographic assessment of pial collaterals as a prognostic indicator following intra-arterial thrombolysis for acute ischemic stroke. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 26(7), 1789-1797 (2005).
132. Gonzalez RG, Schaefer PW, Roccatagliata L et al. Stability of large diffusion/perfusion mismatch for 4 hours. Presented at: International Stroke Conference. New Orleans, LA, USA, 20-22 February 2008.
133. Sorensen AG, Copen WA, Østergaard L et al. Hyperacute stroke: simultaneous measurement of relative cerebral blood volume, relative cerebral blood flow, and mean tissue transit time. Radiology 210(2), 519-527 (1999).
134. Neumann-Haefelin T, Wittsack HJ, Wenserski F et al. Diffusion- and perfusion-weighted MRI. The DWI/PWI mismatch region in acute stroke. Stroke 30(8), 1591-1597 (1999).
135. Darby DG, Barber PA, Gerraty RP et al. Pathophysiological topography of acute ischemia by combined diffusion-weighted and perfusion MRI. Stroke 30(10), 2043-2052 (1999).
136. Copen WA, Rezai-Gharai L, Barak ER et al. Existence of the diffusion-perfusion mismatch up to 24 hours after onset of acute stroke: dependence upon proximal arterial occlusion. Radiology (2008) (In Press).