Pathophysiology of chemotherapy-associated thrombosis;Pathophysiologie der chemotherapie-assoziierten thrombose

Hamostaseologie

Volumn 29, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 112-120

  Lechner, Daniel ^a   Weltermann, A ^a  

^a MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA   (Austria)

Author keywords

Chemotherapy; Thalidomide; Thrombosis; VEGF

Indexed keywords

ANASTROZOLE; ANGIOGENESIS INHIBITOR; ANTHRACYCLINE; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; ASPARAGINASE; BLEOMYCIN; CARBOPLATIN; CISPLATIN; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; CYTARABINE; DAUNORUBICIN; DEXAMETHASONE; DOXORUBICIN; EPIRUBICIN; ETOPOSIDE; FLUOROURACIL; GEMCITABINE; IDARUBICIN; IMMUNOMODULATING AGENT; LETROZOLE; METHOTREXATE; PACLITAXEL; POMALIDOMIDE; STATIN; TAMOXIFEN; TAXANE DERIVATIVE; THALIDOMIDE; UNINDEXED DRUG; VINBLASTINE; VINCA ALKALOID; VINCRISTINE;

ARTERY THROMBOSIS; BREAST CANCER; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER HORMONE THERAPY; CANCER PATIENT; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL TRIAL; DRUG INDUCED DISEASE; HUMAN; NEOPLASM; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; RAYNAUD PHENOMENON; REVIEW; THROMBOEMBOLISM; VEIN THROMBOSIS;

ANGIOGENESIS INHIBITORS; ANTIMETABOLITES, ANTINEOPLASTIC; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS; CISPLATIN; HUMANS; NEOPLASMS; STROKE; THROMBOSIS;

EID: 59649093885     PISSN: 07209355     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (124)

1. Sallah S, Wan JY, Nguyen NP. Venous thrombosis in patients with solid tumors: determination of frequency and characteristics. Thromb Haemost 2002; 87: 575-579.
2. Khorana AA, Francis CW, Culakova E et al. Thromboembolism is a leading cause of death in cancer patients receiving outpatient chemotherapy. J Thromb Haemost 2007; 5: 632-634.
3. Khorana AA, Francis CW, Culakova E, Lyman GH. Risk factors for chemotherapy-associated venous thromboembolism in a prospective observational study. Cancer 2005; 104: 2822-2829.
4. Licciardello JT, Moake JL, Rudy CK et al. Elevated plasma von Willebrand factor levels and arterial occlusive complications associated with cisplatin-based chemotherapy. Oncology 1985; 42: 296-300.
5. Lyman GH, Khorana AA, Falanga A et al. American Society of Clinical Oncology guideline: recommendations for venous thromboembolism prophylaxis and treatment in patients with cancer. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25: 5490-5505.
6. Feffer SE, Carmosino LS, Fox RL. Acquired protein C deficiency in patients with breast cancer receiving cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, and 5-fluorouracil. Cancer 1989; 63: 1303-1307.
7. Rella C, Coviello M, Giotta F et al. A prothrombotic state in breast cancer patients treated with adjuvant chemotherapy. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1996; 40: 151-159.
8. nd, Murgo AJ, Fontana JA, Raich PC. Chemotherapy for breast cancer decreases plasma protein C and protein S. J Clin Oncol 1988; 6: 276-281.
9. Von Tempelhoff GF, Dietrich M, Hommel G, Heilmann L. Blood coagulation during adjuvant epirubicin/cyclophosphamide chemotherapy in patients with primary operable breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 1996; 14: 2560-2568.
10. O'Hanlon DM, Fitzsimons H, Lynch J et al. Soluble adhesion molecules (E-selectin, ICAM-1 and VCAM-1) in breast carcinoma. Eur J Cancer 2002; 38: 2252-2257.
11. Bertomeu MC, Gallo S, Lauri D et al. Chemotherapy enhances endothelial cell reactivity to platelets. Clin Exp Metastasis 1990; 8: 511-518.
12. Kirwan CC, McDowell G, McCollum CN et al. Early changes in the haemostatic and procoagulant systems after chemotherapy for breast cancer. Br J Cancer 2008; 99: 1000-1006.
13. Fields SM, Lindley CM. Thrombotic microangiopathy associated with chemotherapy: case report and review of the literature. Dicp 1989; 23: 582-588.
14. Gerl A, Clemm C, Wilmanns W. Acute cerebrovascular event after cisplatin-based chemotherapy fortesticular cancer. Lancet. 1991; 338: 385-386.
15. Vogelzang NJ, Torkelson JL, Kennedy BJ. Hypomagnesemia, renal dysfunction, and Raynaud's phenomenon in patients treated with cisplatin, vinblastine, and bleomycin. Cancer 1985; 56: 2765-2770.
16. Barcelo R, Lopez-Vivanco G, Mane JM et al. Distal ischemic changes related to combination chemotherapy with cisplatin and gemcitabine: description of four cases. Ann Oncol 2000; 11: 1191-1194.
17. Numico G, Garrone O, Dongiovanni V et al. Prospective evaluation of major vascular events in patients with nonsmall cell lung carcinoma treated with cisplatin and gemcitabine. Cancer 2005; 103: 994-999.
18. Jacobson GM, Kamath RS, Smith BJ, Goodheart MJ. Thromboembolic events in patients treated with definitive chemotherapy and radiation therapy for invasive cervical cancer. Gynecol Oncol 2005; 96: 470-474.
19. Weijl NI, Rutten MF, Zwinderman AH et al. Thromboembolic events during chemotherapy for germ cell cancer: a cohort study and review of the literature. J Clin Oncol 2000; 18: 2169-2178.
20. El Amrani M, Heinzlef O, Debroucker T et al. Brain infarction following 5-fluorouracil and cisplatin therapy. Neurology 1998; 51: 899-901.
21. Meinardi MT, Gietema JA, van der Graaf WT et al. Cardiovascular morbidity in long-term survivors of metastatic testicular cancer. J Clin Oncol 2000; 18: 1725-1732.
22. Hansen SW, Olsen N, Rossing N, Rorth M. Vascular toxicity and the mechanism underlying Raynaud's phenomenon in patients treated with cisplatin, vinblastine and bleomycin. Ann Oncol 1990; 1: 289-292.
23. Anders JC, Grigsby PW, Singh AK. Cisplatin chemotherapy (without erythropoietin) and risk of life-threatening thromboembolic events in carcinoma of the uterine cervix: the tip of the iceberg? A review of the literature. Radiat Oncol 2006; 1: 14.
24. Zecchina G, Ghio P, Bosio S et al. Reactive thrombocytosis might contribute to chemotherapy-related thrombophilia in patients with lung cancer. Clin Lung Cancer 2007; 8: 264-267.
25. Aitokallio-Tallberg A, Viinikka L, Ylikorkala O. Urinary excretion of prostacyclin and thromboxane degradation products in patients with ovarian malignancy: effect of cytostatic treatment. Br J Cancer 1989; 60: 785-788.
26. Schilsky RL, Anderson T. Hypomagnesemia and renal magnesium wasting in patients receiving cisplatin. Ann Intern Med 1979; 90: 929-931.
27. Togna GI, Togna AR, Franconi M, Caprino L. Cisplatin triggers platelet activation. Thromb Res 2000; 99: 503-509.
28. Walker RW, Rosenblum MK, Kempin SJ, Christian MC. Carboplatin-associated thrombotic microangiopathic hemolytic anemia. Cancer 1989; 64: 1017-1020.
29. Walsh J, Wheeler HR, Geczy CL. Modulation of tissue factor on human monocytes by cisplatin and adriamycin. Br J Haematol 1992; 81: 480-488.
30. Gerl A. Vascular toxicity associated with chemotherapy for testicular cancer. Anticancer Drugs 1994; 5: 607-614.
31. Ohashi S, Yazumi S, Nishio A et al. Acute cerebral infarction during combination chemotherapy with s-1 and cisplatin for a young patient with a mucin-producing adenocarcinoma of the stomach. Intern Med 2006; 45: 1049-1053.
32. Dursun B, He Z, Somerset H et al. Caspases and calpain are independent mediators of cisplatin-induced endothelial cell necrosis. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2006; 291: F578-F587.
33. Lechner D, Kollars M, Gleiss A et al. Chemotherapy-induced thrombin generation via procoagulant endothelial microparticles is independent of tissue factor activity. J Thromb Haemost 2007; 5: 2445-2452.
34. Periard D, Boulanger CM, Eyer S et al. Are circulating endothelial-derived and platelet-derived microparticles a pathogenic factor in the cisplatin-induced stroke? Stroke 2007; 38: 1636-1638.
35. Nagaya S, Wada H, Oka K et al. Hemostatic abnormalities and increased vascular endothelial cell markers in patients with red cell fragmentation syndrome induced by mitomycin C. Am J Hematol 1995; 50: 237-243.
36. Bazzan M, Pannocchia A, Tarella C et al. Reduction of plasma fibrinolytic activity following high-dose cyclophosphamide is neutralized in vivo by GM-CSF administration. Haematologica 1993; 78: 105-110.
37. Otten HM, Mathijssen J, ten Cate H et al. Symptomatic venous thromboembolism in cancer patients treated with chemotherapy: an underestimated phenomenon. Arch Intern Med 2004; 164: 190-194.
38. Grem JL, McAtee N, Murphy RF et al. Phase I and pharmacokinetic study of recombinant human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor given in combination with fluorouracil plus calcium leucovorin in metastatic gastrointestinal adenocarcinoma. J Clin Oncol 1994; 12: 560-568.
39. Cwikiel M, Persson SU, Larsson H et al. Changes of blood viscosity in patients treated with 5-fluorouracil - a link to cardiotoxicity? Acta Oncol 1995; 34: 83-85.
40. Edwards RL, Klaus M, Matthews E et al. Heparin abolishes the chemotherapy-induced increase in plasma fibrinopeptide A levels. Am J Med 1990; 89: 25-28.
41. Becker K, Erckenbrecht JF, Haussinger D, Frieling T. Cardiotoxicity of the antiproliferative compound fluorouracil. Drugs 1999; 57: 475-484.
42. Kuzel T, Esparaz B, Green D, Kies M. Thrombogenicity of intravenous 5-fluorouracil alone or in combination with cisplatin. Cancer 1990; 65: 885-889.
43. Cwikiel M, Eskilsson J, Albertsson M, Stavenow L. The influence of 5-fluorouracil and methotrexate on vascular endothelium. An experimental study using endothelial cells in the culture. Ann Oncol 1996; 7: 731-737.
44. Cwikiel M, Zhang B, Eskilsson J et al. The influence of 5-fluorouracil on the endothelium in small arteries. An electron microscopic study in rabbits. Scanning Microsc 1995; 9: 561-576.
45. Wenzel DG, Cosma GN. A model system for measuring comparative toxicities of cardiotoxic drugs for cultured rat heart myocytes, endothelial cells and fibroblasts. II. Doxorubicin, 5-fluorouracil and cyclophosphamide. Toxicology 1984; 33: 117-128.
46. Kinhult S, Albertsson M, Eskilsson J, Cwikiel M. Antithrombotic treatment in protection against thrombogenic effects of 5-fluorouracil on vascular endothelium: a scanning microscopy evaluation. Scanning 2001; 23: 1-8.
47. Kinhult S, Albertsson M, Eskilsson J, Cwikiel M. Effects of probucol on endothelial damage by 5-fluorouracil. Acta Oncol 2003; 42: 304-308.
48. Moore IM, Merkle CJ, Miketova P et al. Cytosine arabinoside induces programmed endothelial cell death through the caspase-3 pathway. Biol Res Nurs 2006; 7: 289-296.
49. Paredes N, Xu L, Berry LR, Chan AK. The effects of chemotherapeutic agents on the regulation of thrombin on cell surfaces. Br J Haematol 2003; 120: 315-324.
50. Fischer EG, Ruf W, Mueller BM. Tissue factor-initiated thrombin generation activates the signaling thrombin receptor on malignant melanoma cells. Cancer Res 1995; 55: 1629-1632.
51. Merkle CJ, Moore IM, Penton BS et al. Methotrexate causes apoptosis in postmitotic endothelial cells. Biol Res Nurs 2000; 2: 5-14.
52. Mailloux A, Grenet K, Bruneel A et al. Anticancer drugs induce necrosis of human endothelial cells involving both oncosis and apoptosis. Eur J Cell Biol 2001; 80: 442-449.
53. Watts ME, Woodcock M, Arnold S, Chaplin DJ. Effects of novel and conventional anti-cancer agents on human endothelial permeability: influence of tumour secreted factors. Anticancer Res 1997; 17: 71-75.
54. Mewhort-Buist TA, Liaw PC, Patel S et al. Treatment of endothelium with the chemotherapy agent vincristine affects activated protein C generation to a greater degree in newborn plasma than in adult plasma. Thromb Res 2008; 122: 418-426.
55. Kaushal V, Kaushal GP, Mehta P. Differential toxicity of anthracyclines on cultured endothelial cells. Endothelium 2004; 11: 253-258.
56. Kaushal V, Kaushal GP, Melkaveri SN, Mehta P Thalidomide protects endothelial cells from doxorubicin-induced apoptosis but alters cell morphology. J Thromb Haemost 2004; 2: 327-334.
57. Woodley-Cook J, Shin LY, Swystun L et al. Effects of the chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin on the protein C anticoagulant pathway. Mol Cancer Ther 2006; 5: 3303-3311.
58. Burkhardt A, Holtje WJ, Gebbers JO. Vascular lesions following perfusion with bleomycin. Electron-microscopic observations. Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histol 1976; 372: 227-236.
59. Orr FW, Adamson IY, Young L. Promotion of pulmonary metastasis in mice by bleomycin-induced endothelial injury. Cancer Res 1986; 46: 891-897.
60. Nicolson GL, Custead SE. Effects of chemotherapeutic drugs on platelet and metastatic tumor cell-endothelial cell interactions as a model for assessing vascular endothelial integrity. Cancer Res 1985; 45: 331-336.
61. Ramsay NK, Coccia PF, Krivit W et al. The effect of L-asparaginase of plasma coagulation factors in acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer 1977; 40: 1398-1401.
62. Alberts SR, Bretscher M, Wiltsie JC et al. Thrombosis related to the use of L-asparaginase in adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a need to consider coagulation monitoring and clotting factor replacement. Leuk Lymphoma 1999; 32: 489-496.
63. Bezeaud A, Drouet L, Leverger G et al. Effect of L-asparaginase therapy for acute lymphoblastic leukemia on plasma vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors and inhibitors. J Pediatr 1986; 108: 698-701.
64. Appel IM, Hop WC, van Kessel-Bakvis C et al. L-Asparaginase and the effect of age on coagulation and fibrinolysis in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Thromb Haemost 2008; 100: 330-337.
65. Oner AF, Gurgey A, Kirazli S et al. Changes of hemostatic factors in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia receiving combined chemotherapy including high dose methylprednisolone and L-asparaginase. Leuk Lymphoma 1999; 33: 361-364.
66. Pui CH, Jackson CW, Chesney CM, Abildgaard CF. Involvement of von Willebrand factor in thrombosis following asparaginase-prednisone-vincristine therapy for leukemia. Am J Hematol 1987; 25: 291-298.
67. Falanga A, Marchetti M, Barbui T. All-trans-retinoic acid and bleeding/thrombosis. Pathophysiol Haemost Thromb 2003; 33 (Suppl 1): 19-21.
68. Kwaan HC, Wang J, Boggio LN. Abnormalities in hemostasis in acute promyelocytic leukemia. Hematol Oncol 2002; 20: 33-41.
69. Marchetti M, Falanga A, Giovanelli S et al. All-trans-retinoic acid increases adhesion to endothelium of the human promyelocytic leukaemia cell line NB4. Br J Haematol 1996; 93: 360-366.
70. Small M, Lowe GD, Forbes CD, Thomson JA. Thromboembolic complications in Cushing's syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1983; 19: 503-511.
71. Patrassi GM, Dal Bo Zanon R, Boscaro M et al. Further studies on the hypercoagulable state of patients with Cushing's syndrome. Thromb Haemost 1985; 54: 518-520.
72. La Brocca A, Terzolo M, Pia A et al. Recurrent thromboembolism as a hallmark of Cushing's syndrome. J Endocrinol Invest 1997; 20: 211-214.
73. Conn DL, Tompkins RB, Nichols WL. Glucocorticoids in the management of vasculitis, a double edged sword? J Rheumatol 1988; 15: 1181-1183.
74. Laug WE. Glucocorticoids inhibit plasminogen activator production by endothelial cells. Thromb Haemost 1983; 50: 888-892.
75. Abramowicz D, Pradier O, De Pauw L et al. High-dose glucocorticosteroids increase the procoagulant effects of OKT3. Kidney Int 1994; 46: 1596-1602.
76. Saphner T, Tormey DC, Gray R. Venous and arterial thrombosis in patients who received adjuvant therapy for breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 1991; 9: 286-294.
77. McDonald CC, Alexander FE, Whyte BW et al. Cardiac and vascular morbidity in women receiving adjuvant tamoxifen for breast cancer in a randomised trial. The Scottish Cancer Trials Breast Group. Br Med J 1995; 311: 977-980.
78. Fisher B, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL et al. Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: report of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998; 90: 1371-1388.
79. Cosman F, Baz-Hecht M, Cushman M et al. Short-term effects of estrogen, tamoxifen and raloxifene onhemostasis: arandomized-controlled study and review of the literature. Thromb Res 2005; 116: 1-13.
80. Jones AL, Powles TJ, Treleaven JG et al. Haemostatic changes and thromboembolic risk during tamoxifen therapy in normal women. Br J Cancer 1992; 66: 744-747.
81. Love RR, Surawicz TS, Williams EC. Antithrombin III level, fibrinogen level, and platelet count changes with adjuvant tamoxifen therapy. Arch Intern Med 1992; 152: 317-320.
82. Mannucci PM, Bettega D, Chantarangkul V et al. Effect of tamoxifen on measurements of hemostasis in healthy women. Arch Intern Med 1996; 156: 1806-1810.
83. Oberhoff C, Szymeczek J, Hoffmann O et al. Adjuvant antiestrogen treatment with tamoxifen in postmenopausal women with breast cancer: a longitudinal study of blood coagulation and fibrinolysis. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1998; 50: 73-81.
84. Pemberton KD, Melissari E, Kakkar VV. The influence of tamoxifen in vivo on the main natural anticoagulants and fibrinolysis. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 1993; 4: 935-942.
85. Vitseva O, Flockhart DA, Jin Y et al. The effects of tamoxifen and its metabolites on platelet function and release of reactive oxygen intermediates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2005; 312: 1144-1150.
86. Forbes JF, Cuzick J, Buzdar A et al. Effect of anastrozole and tamoxifen as adjuvant treatment for early-stage breast cancer: 100-month analysis of the ATAC trial. Lancet Oncol 2008; 9: 45-53.
87. Mouridsen H, Keshaviah A, Coates AS et al. Cardiovascular adverse events during adjuvant endocrine therapy for early breast cancer using letrozoIe or tamoxifen: safety analysis of BIG 1-98 trial. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25: 5715-5722.
88. Costa LA, Kopreski MS, Demers LM et al. Effect of the potent aromatase inhibitor fadrozole hydrochloride (CGS 16949A) in postmenopausal women with breast carcinoma. Cancer 1999; 85: 100-103.
89. Marriott JB, Clarke IA, Dredge K et al. Thalidomide and its analogues have distinct and opposing effects on TNF-alpha and TNFR2 during co-stimulation of both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. Clin Exp Immunol 2002; 130: 75-84.
90. D'Amato RJ, Loughnan MS, Flynn E, Folkman J. Thalidomide is an inhibitor of angiogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91: 4082-4085.
91. Mileshkin L, Biagi JJ, Mitchell P et al. Multicenter phase 2 trial of thalidomide in relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma: adverse prognostic impact of advanced age. Blood 2003; 102: 69-77.
92. Singhal S, Mehta J, Desikan R et al. Antitumor activity of thalidomide in refractory multiple myeloma. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 1565-1571.
93. Rajkumar SV, Blood E, Vesole D et al. Phase III clinical trial of thalidomide plus dexamethasone compared with dexamethasone alone in newly diagnosed multiple myeloma: a clinical trial coordinated by the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol 2006; 24: 431-436.
94. Palumbo A, Bringhen S, Caravita T et al. Oral melphalan and prednisone chemotherapy plus thalidomide compared with melphalan and prednisone alone in elderly patients with multiple myeloma: randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2006; 367: 825-831.
95. Zangari M, Anaissie E, Barlogie B et al. Increased risk of deep-vein thrombosis in patients with multiple myeloma receiving thalidomide and chemotherapy. Blood 2001; 98: 1614-1615.
96. Elice F, Fink L, Tricot G et al. Acquired resistance to activated protein C (aAPCR) in multiple myeloma is a transitory abnormality associated with an increased risk of venous thromboembolism. Br J Haematol 2006; 134: 399-405.
97. Jimenez-Zepeda VH, Dominguez-Martinez VJ. Acquired activated protein C resistance and thrombosis in multiple myeloma patients. Thromb J 2006; 4: 11.
98. Corso A, Lorenzi A, Terulla V et al. Modification of thrombomodulin plasma levels in refractory myeloma patients during treatment with thalidomide and dexamethasone. Ann Hematol 2004; 83: 588-591.
99. Minnema MC, Fijnheer R, De Groot PG, Lokhorst HM. Extremely high levels of von Willebrand factor antigen and of procoagulant factor VIII found in multiple myeloma patients are associated with activity status but not with thalidomide treatment. J Thromb Haemost 2003; 1: 445-449.
100. Weber D, Ginsberg C, Walker P et al. Correlation of thrombotic/embolic events with features of hypercoagulability in previously untreated patients before and after treatment with thalidomide or thalidomide-dexamethasone. Blood 2002; 100: 787.
101. Li H, Raia V, Bertolini F et al. Circulating endothelial cells as a therapeutic marker for thalidomide in combined therapy with chemotherapy drugs in a human prostate cancer model. BJU Int 2008; 101: 884-888.
102. Kaushal V, Kohli M, Zangari M et al. Endothelial dysfunction in antiangiogenesis-associated thrombosis. J Clin Oncol 2002; 20: 3042.
103. Rajkumar SV, Blood E. Lenalidomide and venous thrombosis in multiple myeloma. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 2079-2080.
104. Dimopoulos MA, Spencer A, Attal M et al. Study of Lenalidomide Plus Dexamethasone Versus Dexamethasone Alone in Relapsed or Refractory Multiple Myeloma (MM): Results of a Phase 3 Study (MM-010). Blood (ASH Annual Meeting Abstracts); 2005: 6.
105. Streetly M, Hunt BJ, Parmar K et al. Markers of endothelial and haemostatic function in the treatment of relapsed myeloma with the immunomodulatory agent Actimid (CC-4047) and their relationship with venous thrombosis. Eur J Haematol 2005; 74: 293-296.
106. Schey SA, Fields P, Bartlett JB et al. Phase I study of an immunomodulatory thalidomide analog, CC-4047, in relapsed or refractory multiple myeloma. J Clin Oncol 2004; 22: 3269-3276.
107. Lamalice L, Le Boeuf F, Huot J. Endothelial cell migration during angiogenesis. Circ Res 2007; 100: 782-794.
108. Jakob C, Sterz J, Zavrski I et al. Angiogenesis in multiple myeloma. Eur J Cancer 2006; 42: 1581-1590.
109. Zanetta L, Marcus SG, Vasile J et al. Expression of Von Willebrand factor, an endothelial cell marker, is up-regulated by angiogenesis factors: a potential method for objective assessment of tumor angiogenesis. Int J Cancer 2000; 85: 281-288.
110. Camera M, Giesen PL, Fallon J et al. Cooperation between VEGF and TNF-alpha is necessary for exposure of active tissue factor on the surface of human endothelial cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1999; 19: 531-537.
111. Calnek DS, Grinnell BW. Thrombomodulin-dependent anticoagulant activity is regulated by vascular endothelial growth factor. Exp Cell Res 1998; 238: 294-298.
112. Pepper MS, Ferrara N, Orci L, Montesano R. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) induces plasminogen activators and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 in microvascular endothelial cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1991; 181: 902-906.
113. Kroon ME, Koolwijk P, Vermeer MA et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor enhances the expression of urokinase receptor in human endothelial cells via protein kinase C activation. Thromb Haemost 2001; 85: 296-302.
114. Tam BY, Wei K, Rudge JS et al. VEGF modulates erythropoiesis through regulation of adult hepatic erythropoietin synthesis. Nat Med 2006; 12: 793-800.
115. Escudier B, Eisen T, Stadler WM et al. Sorafenib in advanced clear-cell renal-cell carcinoma. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 125-134.
116. Schmidinger M, Zielinski CC, Vogl UM et al. Cardiac toxicity of sunitinib and sorafenib in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 2008; 26: 5204-5212.
117. Kuenen BC, Levi M, Meijers JC et al. Analysis of coagulation cascade and endothelial cell activation during inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor/vascular endothelial growth factor receptor pathway in cancer patients. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22: 1500-1505.
118. Kurup A, Lin CW, Murry DJ et al. Recombinant human angiostatin (rhAngiostatin) in combination with paclitaxel and carboplatin in patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer: a phase II study from Indiana University. Ann Oncol 2006; 17: 97-103.
119. Kuenen BC, Rosen L, Smit EF et al. Dose-finding and pharmacokinetic study of cisplatin, gemcitabine, and SU5416 in patients with solid tumors. J Clin Oncol 2002; 20: 1657-1667.
120. Van Heeckeren WJ, Sanborn SL, Narayan A et al. Complications from vascular disrupting agents and angiogenesis inhibitors: aberrant control of hemostasis and thrombosis. Curr Opin Hematol 2007; 14: 468-0.
121. Priest JR, Ramsay NK, Latchaw RE et al. Thrombotic and hemorrhagic strokes complicating early therapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer 1980; 46: 1548-1554.
122. Mitchell L, Andrew M, Hanna K et al. Trend to efficacy and safety using antithrombin concentrate in prevention of thrombosis in children receiving l-asparaginase for acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Results of the PAARKA study. Thromb Haemost 2003; 90: 235-244.
123. Gugliotta L, Mazzucconi MG, Leone G et al. Incidence of thrombotic complications in adult patients with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia receiving L-asparaginase during induction therapy: a retrospective study. The GIMEMA Group. Eur J Haematol 1992; 49: 63-66.
124. Lee AY, Levine MN. The thrombophilic state induced by therapeutic agents in the cancer patient. Semin Thromb Hemost 1999; 25: 137-145.