Long-term consequences of drugs on the paediatric cardiovascular system

Drug Safety

Volumn 31, Issue 12, 2008, Pages 1083-1096

  Hausner, Elizabeth ^a   Fiszman, Monica L ^a   Hanig, Joseph ^a   Harlow, Patricia ^a   Zornberg, Gwen ^a   Sobel, Solomon ^a  

^a CENTER FOR DRUG EVALUATION AND RESEARCH   (United States)

Author keywords

Adverse drug reactions; Cardiovascular disorders; Children; Heart

Indexed keywords

AMITRIPTYLINE; AMPHETAMINE; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ARIPIPRAZOLE; ATOMOXETINE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CARBAMAZEPINE; CLONIDINE; CYPROHEPTADINE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; HERBACEOUS AGENT; IBUPROFEN; IMIPRAMINE; LITHIUM; METHYLPHENIDATE; MODAFINIL; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; NIMODIPINE; NON PRESCRIPTION DRUG; PARACETAMOL; PROPRANOLOL; RISPERIDONE; SUMATRIPTAN; TOPIRAMATE; TRIPTAN DERIVATIVE; UNINDEXED DRUG; VALPROATE SEMISODIUM; VALPROIC ACID;

ASTHENIA; ASTHMA; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BODY FAT; BODY WATER; CARDIOTOXICITY; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR EFFECT; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHILD CARE; COMORBIDITY; DEPRESSION; DISEASE MARKER; DIZZINESS; DOSE KIDNEY FUNCTION RELATION; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG EXCRETION; DRUG EXPOSURE; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG USE; FOLLOW UP; GASTROINTESTINAL ABSORPTION; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; HYPERTENSION; MENTAL DISEASE; MIGRAINE; NEOPLASM; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; PHARMACOGENOMICS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SIDE EFFECT; TASTE DISORDER; THORAX PAIN; WEIGHT GAIN; XEROSTOMIA;

AGE FACTORS; ANTI-ASTHMATIC AGENTS; ANTI-HIV AGENTS; ANTICONVULSANTS; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS; BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; CHILD; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; CLINICAL TRIALS AS TOPIC; COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES; GLUCOCORTICOIDS; HUMANS; NONPRESCRIPTION DRUGS; PEDIATRICS; POLYPHARMACY; PRESCRIPTION DRUGS; PSYCHOTROPIC DRUGS;

EID: 56749177855     PISSN: 01145916     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/0002018-200831120-00005     Document Type: Review

References (128)

1. Landrigan PJ, Trasande L, Thorpe LE, et al. The National Children's Study: a 21-year prospective study of 100,000 American children. Pediatrics 2006; 118: 2173-86
2. Pohl HR, van Engelen JGM, Wilson J, et al. Risk assessment of chemicals and pharmaceuticals in the pediatric population: a workshop report. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2005; 42: 83-95
3. Rakusan K, Flanagan MF, Geva T, et al. Morphometry of human coronary capillaries during normal growth and the effect of age in left ventricular pressure-overload hypertrophy. Circulation 1992; 86: 38-46
4. Marston SB, Redwood CS. Modulation of thin filament activation by breakdown or isoform switching of thin filament proteins: physiological and pathological implications. Circ Res 2003; 93: 1170-8
5. 1D-adrenoceptor: molecular and cellular characteristics and integrative roles. Eur J Pharmacol 2004; 500: 113-20
6. Zagon IS, Verderame MF, McLaughlin PJ. The biology of the opioid growth factor receptor (OGFr). Brain Res Rev 2002; 38: 351-76
7. Buckley NM, Gootman PM, Yellin EL, et al. Age-related cardiovascular effects of catecholamines in anesthetized piglets. Circ Res 1979; 45: 282-92
8. Lenard Z, Studinger P, Mersich B, et al. Maturation of cardiovagal autonomic function from childhood to young adult age. Circulation 2004; 110: 2307-12
9. Rakusan K. Cardiac growth, maturation and aging. In: Radovan Z, editor. Growth of the heart in health and disease. New York: Raven Press, 1984: 131-64
10. Garson A. Pediatric arrhythmias: how different from adults? Ped Med Chir (Med Surg Ped) 1987; 9: 543-52
11. Mowery B, Suddaby EC. ECG interpretation: what is different in children? Pediatr Nurs 2001 May-Jun; 27 (3): 224-31
12. Rautaharju PM, Davignon A, Soumis F, et al. Evolution of QRS-T relationship from birth to adolescence in Frank-lead orthogonal electrocardiograms of 1492 normal children. Circulation 1979; 60: 196-204
13. Weise M, Eisenhofer G, Merke DP. Pubertal and gender-related changes in the sympathoadrenal system in healthy children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87 (11): 5038-43
14. Grazzi L. Headache in children and adolescents: conventional and unconventional approaches to treatment. Neurol Sci 2004; 25: S223-5
15. Lewis D, Ashwal S, Hershey A, et al. Practice parameter: pharmacological treatment of migraine headache in children and adolescents. Report of the American Academy of Neurology Quality Standards Subcommittee and the Practice Committee of the Child Neurology Society. Neurology 2004; 63: 2215-24
16. Anttila P. Tension-type headache in children and adolescence. Lancet Neurol 2006; 5: 268-74
17. Winner P, Rothner AD, Wooten JD, et al. Sumatriptan nasal spray in adolescent migraineurs: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled acute study. Headache 2006 Feb; 46 (2): 212-22
18. Major PW, Grubisa HSI, Thie NMR. Triptans for treatment of acute pediatric migraine: a systematic literature review. Pediatr Neurol 2003; 29: 425-9
19. Lewis DW, Diamond S, Scott D, et al. Prophylactic treatment of pediatric migraine. Headache 2004; 44: 230-7
20. Eiland LS, Jenkins LS, Durham SH. Pediatric migraine: pharmacologic agents for prophylaxis. Ann Pharmacother 2007 Jul; 41 (7): 1181-90
21. Saland JM. Update on the metabolic syndrome in children. Curr Opin Pediatr 2007 Apr; 19 (2): 183-91
22. Daniels SR, Arnett DK, Eckel RH, et al. Overweight in children and adolescents: pathophysiology, consequences, prevention, and treatment. Circulation 2005; 111 (15): 1999-2012
23. Sorof J, Daniels S. Obesity hypertension in children: a problem of epidemic proportions. Hypertension 2002; 40: 441-7
24. Sorof JM, Lai D, Turner J, et al. Overweight, ethnicity and the prevalence of hypertension in school-age children. Pediatrics 2004; 113: 475-82
25. Swinford RD, Portman RJ. Measurement and treatment of elevated blood pressure in the pediatric patient with chronic kidney disease. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 2004 Apr; 11 (2): 143-61
26. National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents. The fourth report on the diagnosis, evaluation and treatment of high blood pressure in children and adolescents. Pediatrics 2004; 114 (2 Suppl.): 555-76
27. Jones JE, Jose PA. Neonatal blood pressure regulation. Semin Perinatol 2004; 28 (2): 141-8
28. Woroniecki RP, Flynn JT. How are hypertensive children evaluated and managed? A survey of North American pediatric nephrologists. Pediatr Nephrol 2005; 20: 791-7
29. Seikaly MG. Hypertension in children: an update on treatment strategies. Curr Opin Pediatr 2007 Apr; 19 (2): 170-7
30. Wollert KC, Drexler H. The renin-angiotensin system and experimental heart failure. Cardiovasc Res 1999 Sep; 43 (4): 838-49
31. Li F, Wang X, Capasso JM, et al. Rapid transition of cardiac myocytes from hyperplasia to hypertrophy during postnatal development. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1996; 28: 1737-46
32. Zito JM, Safer DJ, dosReis S, et al. Trends in the prescribing of psychotropic medications to preschoolers. JAMA 2000; 283 (8): 1025-30
33. Wong ICK, Murray ML, Camilleri-Novak D, et al. Increased prescribing trends of paediatric psychotropic medications. Arch Dis Child 2004 Dec; 89 (12): 1131-2
34. Masi G. Pharmacotherapy of pervasive developmental disorders in children and adolescents. CNS Drugs 2004; 18 (14): 1031-52
35. McCracken JT. Safety issues with drug therapies for autism spectrum disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 2005; 66 Suppl. 10: 32-7
36. Tcheremissine OV, Lieving LM. Pharmacological aspects of the treatment of conduct disorder in children and adolescents. CNS Drugs 2006; 20 (7): 549-65
37. Findling RL. Pharmacologic treatment of behavioral symptoms in autism and pervasive developmental disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 2005; 66 Suppl. 10: 26-31
38. Kapetanovic S, Simpson GM. Review of antipsychotics in children and adolescents. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2006 Oct; 7 (14): 1871-85
39. Olfson M, Blanco C, Liu L, et al. National trends in the outpatient treatment of children and adolescents with antipsychotic drugs. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006; 63: 679-85
40. Costello EJ, Foley DL, Angold A. 10-year research update review: the epidemiology of child and adolescent psychiatric disorders. II. Developmental epidemiology. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2006; 45 (1): 8-25
41. Moreno C, Laje G, Blanco C, et al. National trends in the outpatient diagnosis and treatment of bipolar disorder in youth. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007; 64 (9): 1032-9
42. Olfson M, Marcus SC, Corey-Lisle P, et al. Hyperlipdemia following treatment with antipsychotic medications. Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163: 1821-5
43. Nishina K, Mikawa K. Clonidine in paediatric anesthesia. Curr Opin Anesthesiol 2002 Jun; 15 (3): 309-16
44. Lowery R, Zuk J, Polaner DM. Case report: long-term use of clonidine in a critically-ill infant. Paediatr Anaesth 2005 Aug; 15 (8): 694-8
45. Deutsch ES, Nadkarni VM. Clonidine prophylaxis for narcotic and sedative withdrawal syndrome following laryngotracheal reconstruction. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1996 Nov; 122 (11): 1234-8
46. The Tourette's Syndrome Study Group. Treatment of ADHD in children with tics: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology 2002 Feb 26; 58: 527-36
47. Wolraich ML, Wibbelsman CJ, Brown TE, et al. Attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder among adolescents: a review of the diagnosis, treatment, and clinical implications. Pediatrics 2005 Jun; 115 (6): 1734-46
48. Connor DF, Fletcher KE, Swanson JM. A meta-analysis of clonidine for symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999 Dec; 38 (12): 1551-9
49. Scahill L, Chappell PB, Kim YS, et al. A placebo-controlled study of guanfacine in the treatment of children with tic disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2001 Jul; 158 (7): 1067-74
50. Kurlan R. Treatment of ADHD in children with tics: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology 2002; 58: 527-36
51. Grassi G, Carlo T, Seravalle G, et al. Effects of chronic clonidine administration on sympathetic nerve traffic and baroreflex function in heart failure. Hypertension 2001; 38: 286-91
52. Limbird LE, Gilman AG, editors. Goodman & Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 10th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001: 457-9
53. Varley CK. Sudden death related to selected tricyclic antidepressants in children: epidemiology, mechanisms and clinical implications. Pediatr Drugs 2001; 3 (8): 613-27
54. Correll CU, Carlson HE. Endocrine and metabolic adverse effects of psychotropic medications in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2006; 45 (7): 771-91
55. Francis PD. Effects of psychotropic medications on the pediatric electrocardiogram and recommendations for monitoring. Curr Opin Pediatr 2002; 14: 224-30
56. Blair J, Taggart B, Martin A. Electrocardiographic safety profile and monitoring guidelines in pediatric psychopharmacology. J Neural Transm 2004; 111: 791-815
57. Maloney MJ, Schwam JS. Clonidine and sudden death. Pediatrics 1995 Dec; 96 (6): 1176-7
58. Jacobs W. Fatal amphetamine-associated cardiotoxicity and its medicolegal implications. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2006; 27: 156-60
59. Wijetunga M, Seto T, Lindsay J, et al. Crystal methamphetamine-associated cardiomyopathy: tip of the iceberg? J Tox Clin Toxicol 2003; 41 (7): 981-6
60. Klein-Schwartz W. Abuse and toxicity of methylphenidate. Curr Opin Pediatr 2002; 14: 219-33
61. Foley R, Mrvos R, Krenzelok EP. A profile of methylphenidate exposures. Clin Toxicol 2000; 38 (6): 625-30
62. Alfonso L, Mohammad T, Thatai D. Crack whips the heart: a review of the cardiovascular toxicity of cocaine. Am J Cardiol 2007; 100: 1040-3
63. Wernicke JF, Faries D, Girod D, et al. Cardiovascular effects of atomoxetine in children, adolescents and adults. Drug Saf 2003; 26 (10): 729-40
64. Findling RL, Biederman J, Wilens TE, et al. Short- and long-term cardiovascular effects of mixed amphetamine salts extended release in children. J Pediatr 2005; 147: 348-54
65. Kratochvil CJ, Wilens TE, Greenhill LL, et al. Effects of long-term atomoxetine treatment for young children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2006 Aug; 45 (8): 919-27
66. Tharp BR. Neonatal seizures and syndromes. Epilepsia 2002; 43 Suppl. 3: 2-10
67. Camfield P, Camfield C. Epileptic syndromes in childhood: clinical features, outcomes and treatment. Epilepsia 2002; 43 Suppl. 3: 27-32
68. Wheless JW, Kim HL. Adolescent seizures and epilepsy syndromes. Epilepsia 2002; 43 Suppl. 3: 33-52
69. Guerrini R. Epilepsy in children. Lancet 2006; 367 (9509): 499-524
70. Eirís JM, Lojo S, Del Rio MC, et al. Effects of long-term treatment with antiepileptic drugs on serum lipid levels in children with epilepsy. Neurology 1995; 45 (6): 1155-7
71. Aydin K, Serdargolu A, Okuyaz C, et al. Serum insulin, leptin, and neuropeptide Y levels in epileptic children treated with valproate. J Child Neurol 2005; 20: 848-51
72. Luef G, Abraham I, Hoppichler F, et al. Increase in postprandial serum insulin levels in epileptic patients with valproic acid therapy. Metabolism 2002; 51 (10): 1274-8
73. Pijl H, Meinders AE. Bodyweight change as an adverse effect of drug treatment: mechanisms and management. Drug Saf 1996; 14 (5): 329-42
74. Morrell MJ. Reproductive and metabolic disorders in women with epilepsy. Epilepsia 2003; 44 Suppl. 4: 11-20
75. Asconapé JJ. Some common issues in the use of antiepileptic drugs. Semin Neurol 2002; 22 (1): 27-39
76. Eiris J, Novo-Rodriguez MI, Del Rio M, et al. The effects on lipid and apolipoprotein serum levels of long-term carbamazepine, valproic acid and phenobarbital therapy in children with epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 2000; 41: 1-7
77. Sankar R. Initial treatment of epilepsy with anti-epileptic drugs. Neurology 2004; 63 Suppl. 4: S30-9
78. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [online]. Available from URL: http://www.cdc.gov/health/asthma.htm [Accessed 2008 Sep 24]
79. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Measuring childhood asthma prevalence before and after the 1997 redesign of the National Health Interview Survey: United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2000 Oct 13; 49 (40): 908-11
80. Ostrom NK. Outpatient pharmacotherapy for pediatric asthma. J Pediatrics 2006; 148: 108-14
81. Boehmer ALM, Merkus PJFM. Asthma therapy for children under 5 years of age. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2006; 12: 34-41
82. Abramson MJ, Walters J, Walters EH. Adverse effects of β-agonists: are they clinically relevant? Am J Respir Med 2003; 2 (4): 287-97
83. Allen DB. Inhaled steroids for children: effects on growth, bone and adrenal function. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2005 Sep; 34 (3): 555-64, viii
84. Skoner DP. Balancing safety and efficacy in pediatric asthma management. Pediatrics 2002; 109: 381-92
85. US Food and Drug Administration. Center for Drug Evaluation and Research: Division of Pulmonary Drug Products, class labeling for intranasal and orally inhaled corticosteroid containing drug products regarding the potential for growth suppression in children. FDA talk paper. November 9, 1998, last update July 7, 2005 [online]. Available from URL: http://www.fda.gov/cder/news/cs- label.htm [Accessed 2008 Sep 24]
86. Dybik T, Osnes JB, Skomedal T. Location of alpha 1-adrenoceptors relative to beta-adrenoceptors in rat myocardium. Eur J Pharmacol 1995; 281: 21-7
87. Russell G, Williams DA, Weller P, et al. Salmeterol xinafoate in children on high dose inhaled steroids. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1995; 75: 423-8
88. Simons FE. A comparison of beclomethasone, salmeterol, and placebo in children with asthma: Canadian Beclomethasone Dipropionate-Salmeterol Xinafoate Study Group. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 1659-65
89. Skinner R, Wallace WHB, Levitt GA. Long-term follow-up of people who have survived cancer during childhood. Lancet Oncol 2006; 7: 489-98
90. Iarussi D, Indolfi P, Casale F, et al. Anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity in children with cancer: strategies for prevention and management. Pediatr Drugs 2005; 7 (2): 67-76
91. Hudson MM, Rai SN, Nunez C, et al. Noninvasive evaluation of late anthracycline cardiac toxicity in childhood cancer survivors. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25 (24): 3635-43
92. Simbre V, Duffy SA, Dadlani GH, et al. Cardiotoxicity of cancer chemotherapy: implications for children. Pediatr Drugs 2005; 7 (3): 187-202
93. Pai VB, Nahata MC. Cardiotoxicity of chemotherapeutic agents: incidence, treatment and prevention. Drug Saf 2000 Apr; 22 (4): 263-302
94. Herbertson R, Hancock BW. Hodgkin lymphoma in adolescents. Cancer Treat Rev 2005; 31: 339-60
95. WHO. AIDS epidemic update: December 2005 [online]. Available from URL: http//www.who.int/hiv/epi-update2005_en.pdf [Accessed 2008 Sep 24]
96. 2 HIV) infection study: design and methods. J Clin Epdemiol 1996; 49 (11): 1285-94
97. 2) study. Pediatrics 2001; 107: 328-38
98. Fisher SD, Lipshultz SE. Epidemiology of cardiovascular involvement in HIV disease and AIDS. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001 Nov; 946: 13-22
99. Velasquez EM, Glancy DL, Helmcke F, et al. Echocardiographic findings in HIV disease and AIDS. Echocardiography 2005; 22 (10): 861-6
100. 2HIV study. J Pediatr 2002; 141: 327-34
101. Leonard EG, McComsey GA. Metabolic complications of antiretroviral therapy in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2003; 22 (1): 77-84
102. Cheseaux J-J, Jotterand V, Aebi C, et al. Hyperlipidemia in HIV-infected children treated with protease inhibitors: relevance for cardiovascular diseases. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2002; 30 (3): 288-93
103. Anderson GD. Children versus adults: pharmacokinetic and adverse-effect differences. Epilepsia 2002; 43 Suppl. 3: 53-9
104. Makri A, Goveia M, Balbus J, et al. Children's susceptibility to chemicals: a review by developmental stage. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 2004; 7: 417-35
105. Strolin Benedetti M, Whomsley R, Baltes EL. Drug metabolism in the paediatric population and the elderly. Drug Discov Today 2007; 12: 599-610
106. Ginsberg G, Hattis D, Miller R, et al. Pediatric pharmacokinetic data: implications for environmental risk assessment for children. Pediatrics 2004; 113 (4): 973-83
107. De Zwart LL, Haenen HEMG, Versantvoort CHM, et al. Role of biokinetics in risk assessment of drugs and chemicals in children. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2004; 39: 282-309
108. Lucchesi PA, Sweadner KJ. Postnatal changes in Na,K-ATPase isoform expression in rat cardiac ventricle. J Biol Chem 1991; 266 (14): 9327-31
109. Kjeldsen K, Grøn P. Age-dependent change in myocardial cardiac glycoside receptor (Na,K-pump) concentration in children. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1990; 15: 332-7
110. Christensen ML, Helms RA, Chesney RW. Is pediatric labeling really necessary? Pediatrics 1999; 104 (3 Suppl.): 593-7
111. Latifi S, Lidsky K, Blumer JL. Pharmacology of inotropic agents in infants and children. Prog Ped Cardiol 2000; 12: 57-79
112. Frey WA, Vallee BL. Digitalis metabolism and human liver alcohol dehydrogenase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1980; 77 (2): 924-7
113. Steiness E, Waldorff S, Hansen PB. Renal digoxin clearance dependence on plasma digoxin and diuresis. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1982; 23: 151-4
114. Iisalo E. Clinical pharmacokinetics of digoxin. Clin Pharmacokinet 1977; 2: 1-16
115. Tanigawara Y, Okamura N, Hirai M, et al. Transport of digoxin by human P-glycoprotein expressed in a porcine kidney epithelial cell line (LLC-PK1). J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1992; 263: 840-5
116. Thiebaut F, Tsuruo T, Hamada H, et al. Cellular localization of the multidrug-resistance gene product P-glycoprotein in normal human tissues. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1987; 84: 7735-8
117. Pinto N, Halachmi N, Verjee Z, et al. Ontogeny of renal P-glycoprotein expression in mice: correlation with digoxin renal clearance. Pediatr Res 2005; 58: 1284-9
118. Chen N, Aleksa K, Woodland C, et al. Ontogeny of drug elimination by the human kidney. Pediatr Nephrol 2006; 21: 160-8
119. Läer S, Mir TS, Behn F, et al. Carvedilol therapy in pediatric patients with congestive heart failure: a study investigating clinical and pharmacokinetic parameters. Am Heart J 2002; 143 (5): 916-22
120. Shaddy RE, Boucek MM, Hsu DT, et al. Carvedilol for children and adolescents with heart failure: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2007; 298 (10): 1171-9
121. Auman JT, Seidler FJ, Tate CA, et al. Are developing beta-adrenoceptors able to desensitize? Acute and chronic effects of beta-agonists in neonatal heart and liver. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2002; 283 (1): R205-17
122. Rybin VO, Pak E, Alcott S, et al. Developmental changes in beta2-adrenergic receptor signaling in ventricular myocytes: the role of Gi proteins and caveolae microdomains. Mol Pharmacol 2003; 63 (6): 1338-48
123. Rudolph AM. Myocardial growth before and after birth: clinical implications. Acta Paediatr 2000; 89 (2): 129-33
124. Moorman AF, Christoffels VM. Cardiac chamber formation: development, genes, and evolution. Physiol Rev 2003; 83: 1223-67
125. Gittenberger-De Groot AC, Bartelings MM, Deruiter MC, et al. Basics of cardiac development for the understanding of congenital heart malformations. Pediatr Res 2005; 57: 169-76
126. Hew KW, Keller KA. Postnatal anatomical and functional dedren. velopment of the heart: a species comparison. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol 2003; 68 (4): 309-20
127. Rakusan K. Postnatal development of the heart. In: Bourne GH, editor. Hearts and heart-like organs. New York: Academic Press, 1980: 301-48
128. Sinaiko AR, Lauer RM, Sanders SP. End points for cardiovascular drug trials in pediatric patients. Am Heart J 2001; 142: 229-32