Combining drug and immune therapy: A potential solution to drug resistance and challenges of HIV vaccines?

Current HIV Research

Volumn 6, Issue 5, 2008, Pages 401-410

  Endsley, Aaron N ^a   Salama, Noha N ^a   Ho, Rodney J Y ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

HAART; HIV; Therapeutic vaccination

Indexed keywords

ABACAVIR PLUS LAMIVUDINE PLUS ZIDOVUDINE; ADENOVIRUS VECTOR; ANTI HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS AGENT; ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; CYCLOSPORIN A; EFAVIRENZ PLUS EMTRICITABINE PLUS TENOFOVIR DISOPROXIL; EMTRICITABINE PLUS TENOFOVIR DISOPROXIL; ENFUVIRTIDE; GAG PROTEIN; GLYCOPROTEIN GP 120; GLYCOPROTEIN GP 160; GRANULOCYTE MACROPHAGE COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS VACCINE; INTERLEUKIN 12; INTERLEUKIN 15; INTERLEUKIN 17; LAMIVUDINE PLUS ZIDOVUDINE; LIVE VACCINE; LOPINAVIR PLUS RITONAVIR; MARAVIROC; MURABUTIDE; NEF PROTEIN; PLACEBO; POL PROTEIN; PROTEIN P17; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; RALTEGRAVIR; RECOMBINANT PROTEIN; RNA DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE INHIBITOR; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ADJUVANT THERAPY; ANTIGEN ANTIBODY REACTION; CD4+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CELLULAR IMMUNITY; CLINICAL TRIAL; DISEASE FREE SURVIVAL; DRUG CHOICE; DRUG DESIGN; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG RESEARCH; DRUG RESPONSE; DRUG SYNTHESIS; DRUG TARGETING; DRUG TREATMENT FAILURE; ERADICATION THERAPY; HEPATITIS B; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HUMORAL IMMUNITY; IMMUNOMODULATION; IMMUNOTHERAPY; INNATE IMMUNITY; LIVER TOXICITY; MONOTHERAPY; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE; NEPHROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; NONVIRAL GENE THERAPY; PERSISTENT VIRUS INFECTION; REVIEW; T LYMPHOCYTE ACTIVATION; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; VACCINE PRODUCTION; VERTICAL TRANSMISSION; VIRAL GENE DELIVERY SYSTEM; VIRION; VIRUS CELL INTERACTION; VIRUS GENOME; VIRUS INHIBITION; VIRUS LATENCY; VIRUS LOAD; VIRUS RECOMBINATION; VIRUS REPLICATION; VIRUS TRANSMISSION;

AIDS VACCINES; ANTI-HIV AGENTS; DRUG RESISTANCE, VIRAL; DRUG THERAPY; DRUG THERAPY, COMBINATION; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; IMMUNOTHERAPY;

EID: 53849103280     PISSN: 1570162X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/157016208785861159     Document Type: Review

References (90)

1. WHO. 2007 (updated 2007; cited 12/31/07]; Available from: http://www.who.int(mediacentre/news/releases/2007/pr61/en/index.html
2. cited 12/31/07]; Available from: http://www.fda.gov.oashi/aids/ virals.html
3. Palella FJ Jr, Delaney KM, Moorman AC, et al. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV Outpatient Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 853-60.
4. Roge BT, Barfod TS, Kirk O, et al. Resistance profiles and adherence at primary virological failure in three different highly active antiretroviral therapy regimens: analysis of failure rates in a randomized study. HIV Med 2004; 5: 344-51.
5. SFAF. 1997 [updated 1997; cited 12/31/07]; Available from: http://www.sfaf.org/aboutsfaf/outreach/november97/ beta_briefs_nov97.html
6. IAVL 2007 [updated 2007; cited 12/31/07]; Available from: http://www.iavireport.org/trialsdb/.
7. Moore JP, Burton DR. Urgently needed: a filter for the HIV-1 vaccine pipeline. Nat Med 2004; 10: 769-71.
8. VAC. Approaches to the development of broadly protective HIV vaccines: challenges posed by the genetic, biological and antigenic variability of HIV-1: Report from a meeting of the WHO-UNAIDS Vaccine Advisory Committee Geneva, 21-23 February 2000. AIDS 2001; 15: W1-W25.
9. Pitisuttithum P, Gilbert P, Gurwith M, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled efficacy trial of a bivalent recombinant glycoprotein 120 HIV-1 vaccine among injection drug users in Bangkok, Thailand. J Infect Dis 2006; 194: 1661-71.
10. Pantaleo G, Fauci AS. Immunopathogenesis of HIV infection. Annu Rev Microbiol 1996; 50: 825-54.
11. Preston BD, Dougherty JP. Mechanisms of retroviral mutation. Trends Microbiol 1996; 4: 16-21.
12. Perelson AS, Neumann AU, Markowitz M, Leonard JM, Ho DD. HIV-1 dynamics in vivo: virion clearance rate, infected cell life-span and viral generation time. Science 1996; 271: 1582-6.
13. Malim MH, Emerman M. HIV-1 sequence variation: drift, shift, and attenuation. Cell 2001; 104: 469-72.
14. Blankson JN, Persaud D, Siliciano RF. The challenge of viral reservoirs in HIV-1 infection. Annu Rev Med 2002; 53: 557-93.
15. Sereti I, Lane HC. Immunopathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus: implications for immune-based therapies. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32: 1738-55.
16. Chun TW, Stuyver L, Mizell SB, et al. Presence of an inducible HIV-1 latent reservoir during highly active antiretroviral therapy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94: 13193-7.
17. Finzi D, Hermankova M, Pierson T, et al. Identification of a reservoir for HIV-1 in patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy. Science 1997; 278: 1295-300.
18. Wong JK, Hezareh M, Gunthard HF, et al. Recovery of replication-competent HIV despite prolonged suppression of plasma viremia. Science 1997; 278: 1291-5.
19. Reinhardt RL, Khoruts A, Merica R, Zell T, Jenkins MK. Visualizing the generation of memory CD4 T cells in the whole body. Nature 2001; 410: 101-5.
20. Hamer DH. Can HIV be Cured? Mechanisms of HIV persistence and strategies to combat it. Curr HIV Res 2004; 2: 99-111.
21. Pomerantz RJ. Residual HIV-1 infection during antiretroviral therapy: the challenge of viral persistence. AIDS 2001; 15: 1201-11.
22. Schrager LK, D'Souza MP. Cellular and anatomical reservoirs of HIV-1 in patients receiving potent antiretroviral combination therapy. JAMA 1998; 280: 67-71.
23. Siliciano JD, Kajdas J, Finzi D, et al. Long-term follow-up studies confirm the stability of the latent reservoir for HIV-1 in resting CD4+ T cells. Nat Med 2003; 9: 727-8.
24. Swingler S, Brichacek B, Jacque JM, Ulich C, Zhou J, Stevenson M. HIV-1 Ncf intersects the macrophage CD40L signalling pathway to promote resting-cell infection. Nature 2003; 424: 213-9.
25. Koenig S, Gendelman HE, Orenstein JM, et al. Detection of AIDS virus in macrophages in brain tissue from AIDS patients with encephalopathy. Science 1986; 233: 1089-93.
26. Meltzer MS, Nakamura M, Hansen BD, Turpin JA, Kalter DC, Gendelman HE. Macrophages as susceptible targets for HIV infection, persistent viral reservoirs in tissue, and key immunoregulatory cells that control levels of virus replication and extent of disease. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1990; 6: 967-71.
27. Crowe SM, Mills J, Kirihara J, Boothman J, Marshall JA, McGrath MS. Full-length recombinant CD4 and recombinant gp120 inhibit fusion between HIV infected macrophages and uninfected CD4-expressing T-lymphoblastoid cells. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1990; 6: 1031-7.
28. Herbein G, Van Lint C, Lovett X, Verdin E. Distinct mechanisms trigger apoptosis in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected and in uninfected bystander T lymphocytes. J Virol 1998; 72: 660-70.
29. Mastino A, Grelli S, Piacentini M, et al. Correlation between induction of lymphocyte apoptosis and prostaglandin E2 production by macrophages infected with HIV. Cell Immunol 1993; 152: 120-30.
30. Kelly J, Beddall MH, Yu D, Iyer SR, Marsh JW, Wu Y. Human macrophages support persistent transcription from unintegrated HIV-1 DNA. Virology 2008; 372: 300-12.
31. Amara RR, Robinson HL. A new generation of HIV vaccines. Trends Mol Med 2002; 8: 489-95.
32. Duerr A, Wasserheit JN, Corey L. HIV vaccines: new frontiers in vaccine development. Curr Infect Dis 2006; 43: 500-11.
33. Kent S, De Rose R, Rollman E. Drug evaluation: DNA/MVA prime-boost HIV vaccine. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 2007; 8: 159-67.
34. Klein M. Prospects and challenges for prophylactic and therapeutic IIIV vaccines. Vaccine 2003; 21: 616-9.
35. Titti F, Cafaro A, Ferrantelli F, et al. Problems and emerging approaches in HIV/AIDS vaccine development. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs 2007; 12: 23-48.
36. Koff WC, Johnson PR, Watkins DI, et al. HIV vaccine design: insights from live attenuated SIV vaccines. Nat Immunol 2006; 7: 19-23.
37. Almond N, Stott J. Live attenuated SlV - a model of a vaccine for AIDS. Immunol Lett 1999; 66: 167-70.
38. Baba TW, Liska V, Khimani AH, et al. Live attenuated, multiply deleted simian immunodeficiency virus causes AIDS in infant and adult macaques. Nat Med 1999; 5: 194-203.
39. Desrosiers RC. Prospects for live attenuated HIV. Nat Med 1998; 4: 982.
40. Mills J, Desrosiers R, Rud E, Almond N. Live attenuated HIV vaccines: a proposal for further research and development. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2000; 16: 1453-61.
41. Burton DR. A vaccine for HIV type 1: the antibody perspective. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94: 10018-23.
42. Connor RI, Korber BT, Graham BS, et al. Immunological and virological analyses of persons infected by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 while participating in trials of recombinant gp120 subunit vaccines. J Virol 1998; 72: 1552-76.
43. Letvin NL. Progress and obstacles in the development of an AIDS vaccine. Nat Rev Immunol 2006; 6: 930-9.
44. Moore JP, Burton DR. HIV-1 neutralizing antibodies: how full is the bottle? Nat Med 1999; 5: 142-4.
45. Albert J, Abrahamsson B, Nagy K, et al. Rapid development of isolate-specific neutralizing antibodies after primary HIV-1 infection and consequent emergence of virus variants which resist neutralization by autologous sera. AIDS 1990; 4: 107-12.
46. Wei X, Decker JM, Wang S, et al. Antibody neutralization and escape by HIV-1. Nature 2003; 422: 307-12.
47. Amara RR, Villinger F, Altman JD, et al. Control of a mucosal challenge and prevention of AIDS by a multiprotein DNA/MVA vaccine. Science 2001; 292: 69-74.
48. Barouch DH, Santra S, Schmitz JE, et al. Control of viremia and prevention of clinical AIDS in rhesus monkeys by cytokine-augmented DNA vaccination. Science 2000; 290: 486-92.
49. Demberg T, Florese RH, Heath MJ, et al. A replication-competent adenovirus-human immunodeficiency virus (Ad-HIV) tat and Ad-HIV env priming/Tat and envelope protein boosting regimen elicits enhanced protective efficacy against simian/human immunodeficiency virus SHIV89.6P challenge in rhesus macaques. J Virol 2007; 81: 3414-27.
50. Malkevitch NV, Patterson LJ, Aldrich MK, et al. Durable protection of rhesus macaques immunized with a replicating adenovirus-SIV multigene prime/protein boost vaccine regimen against a second SIVmac251 rectal challenge: role of SIV-specific CD8+ T cell responses. Virology 2006; 353: 83-98.
51. O'Neill E, Martinez I, Villinger F, et al. Protection by SIV VLP DNA prime/protein boost following mucosal SIV challenge is markedly enhanced by IL-12/GM-CSF co-administration. J Med Primatol 2002; 31: 217-27.
52. Patterson LJ, Malkevitch N, Venzon D, et al. Protection against mucosal simian immunodeficiency virus SIV(mac251) challenge by using replicating adenovirus-SIV multigene vaccine priming and subunit boosting. J Virol 2004; 78: 2212-21.
53. Shiver JW, Fu TM, Chen L, et al. Replication-incompetent adenoviral vaccine vector elicits effective anti-immunodeficiency-virus immunity. Nature 2002; 415: 331-5.
54. Cohen J. AIDS research. Did Merck's failed HIV vaccine cause harm? Science 2007; 318: 1048-9.
55. FDA. News. 2007 [updated 2007; cited 12/31/07; Available from: http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2007/NEW01672.html.
56. Ho DD, Neumann AU, Perelson AS, Chen W, Leonard JM, Markowitz M. Rapid turnover of plasma virions and CD4 lymphocytes in HIV-1 infection. Nature 1995; 373: 123-6.
57. Wei X, Ghosh SK, Taylor ME, et al. Viral dynamics in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Nature 1995; 373: 117-22.
58. Fowler MG, Lampe MA, Jamieson DJ, Kourtis AP, Rogers MF. Reducing the risk of mother-to-child human immunodeficiency virus transmission: past successes, current progress and challenges, and future directions. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007; 197: S3-9.
59. Hammer SM, Squires KE, Hughes MD, et al. A controlled trial of two nucleoside analogues plus indinavir in persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection and CD4 cell counts of 200 per cubic millimeter or less. AIDS Clinical Trials Group 320 Study Team. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 725-33.
60. Vittinghoff E, Scheer S, O'Malley P, Colfax G, Holmberg SD, Buchbinder SP. Combination antiretroviral therapy and recent declines in AIDS incidence and mortality. J Infect Dis 1999; 179: 717-20.
61. Cavert W, Notermans DW, Staskus K, et al. Kinetics of response in lymphoid tissues to antiretroviral therapy of HTV-1 infection. Science 1997; 276: 960-4.
62. Brodie SJ. Nonlymphoid reservoirs of HIV replication in children with chronic-progressive disease. J Leukoc Biol 2000; 68: 351-9.
63. Brodie SJ, Patterson BK, Lewinsohn DA, et al. HIV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes traffic to lymph nodes and localize at sites of HIV replication and cell death. J Clin Invest 2000; 105: 1407-17.
64. Hockett RD, Kilby JM, Derdeyn CA, et al. Constant mean viral copy number per infected cell in tissues regardless of high, low, or undetectable plasma HIV RNA. J Exp Med 1999; 189:1545-54.
65. Palmer S, Maldarelli F, Wiegand A, et al. Low-level viremia persists for at least 7 years in patients on suppressive antiretroviral therapy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2008; 105: 3879-84.
66. Wong JK, Gunthard HF, Havlir DV, et al. Reduction of HIV-1 in blood and lymph nodes following potent antiretroviral therapy and the virologic correlates of treatment failure. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94: 12574-9.
67. Ruiz L, van Lunzen J, Amo A, et al. Protease inhibitor-containing regimens compared with nucleoside analogues alone in the suppression of persistent HIV-1 replication in lymphoid tissue. AIDS 1999; 13: F1-8.
68. Kinman L, Brodie SJ, Tsai CC, et al. Lipid-drug association enhanced HIV-1 protease inhibitor indinavir localization in lymphoid tissues and viral load reduction: a proof of concept study in HIV-2287-infected macaques. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2003; 34: 387-97.
69. Solas C, Lafeuillade A, Halfon P, Chadapaud S, Hittinger G, Lacarelle B. Discrepancies between protease inhibitor concentrations and viral load in reservoirs and sanctuary sites in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47: 238-43.
70. El-Sadr WM, Lundgren JD, Neaton JD, et al. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 2283-96.
71. Hardy GA, Imami N, Nelson MR, et al. A phase I, randomized study of combined IL-2 and therapeutic immunisation with antiretroviral therapy. J Immune Based Ther Vaccines 2007; 5: 6.
72. Valdez H, Mitsuyasu R, Landay A, et al. Interleukin-2 Increases CD4+ lymphocyte numbers but does not enhance responses to immunization: results of A5046s. J Infect Dis 2003; 187: 320-5.
73. Birx DL, Loomis-Price LD, Aronson N, et al. Efficacy testing of recombinant human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) gp160 as a therapeutic vaccine in early-stage HIV-1-infected volunteers. rgp160 Phase II Vaccine Investigators. J Infect Dis 2000; 181: 881-9.
74. Lindenburg CE, Stolte I, Langendam MW, et al. Long-term follow-up: no effect of therapeutic vaccination with HIV-1 p17/p24:Ty virus-like particles on HIV-1 disease progression. Vaccine 2002; 20: 2343-7.
75. Schooley RT, Spino C, Kuritzkes D, et al. Two double-blinded, ramdomized, comparative trials of 4 human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope vaccines in HIV-1-infected individuals across a spectrum of disease severity: AIDS clinical trials groups 209 and 214. J Infect Dis 2000; 182: 1357-64.
76. Jin X, Ramanathan M Jr, Barsoum S, et al. Safety and immumogenicity of ALVAC vCP1452 and recombinant gp160 in newly human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected patients treated with prolonged highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Virol 2002; 76: 2206-16.
77. Levy Y, Durier C, Lascaux AS, et al. Sustained control of viremia following therapeutic immunization in chronically HIV-1-infected individuals. AIDS 2006; 20: 405-13.
78. Cosma A, Nagaraj R, Buhler S, et al. Therapeutic vaccination with MVA-HIV-1 nef elicits Nef-specific T-helper cell responses in chronically HIV-1 infected individuals. Vaccine 2003; 22: 21-9.
79. Harrer E, Bauerle M, Ferstl B, et al. Therapeutic vaccination of HIV-1-infected patients on HAART with a recombinant HIV-1 nef-expressing MVA: safety, immunogenicity and influence on viral load during treatment interruption. Antivir Ther 2005; 10: 285-300.
80. Andrieu JM, Lu W. A dendritic cell-based vaccine for treating HIV infection: background and preliminary results. J Intern Med 2007; 261: 123-31.
81. Fernandez-Cruz E, Navarro J, Rodriguez-Sainz C, et al. The potential role of the HIV-1 immunogen (Remune) as a therapeufic vaccine in the treatment of HIV infection. Expert Rev Vaccines 2003; 2: 739-52.
82. Lisziewicz J, Trocio J, Whitman L, et al. DermaVir: a novel topical vaccine for HIV/AIDS. J Invest Dermatol 2005; 124: 160-9.
83. Levy Y, Durier C, Krzysick R, et al. Effects of interleukin-2 therapy combined with highly active antiretroviral therapy on immune restoration in HIV-1 infection: a randomized controlled trial. AIDS 2003; 17: 343-51.
84. Schwartz DH, Skowron G, Merigan TC. Safety and effects of interleukin-2 plus zidovadine in asymptomatic individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1991; 4: 11-23.
85. Stellbrink HJ, van Lunzen J, Westhy M, et al. Effects of interleukin-2 plus highly active antiretroviral therapy on HIV-1 replication and proviral DNA (COSMIC trial). AIDS 2002; 16: 1479-87.
86. Wood R, Montoya JG, Kundu SK, Schwartz DH, Merigan TC. Safety and efficacy of polyethylene glycol-modified interleukin-2 and zidovudine in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection: a phase I/II study. J Infect Dis 1993; 167: 519-25.
87. Wang FX, Xu Y, Sullivan J, et al. IL-7 is a potent and proviral strain-specific inducer of latent HIV-1 cellular reservoirs of infected individuals on virally suppressive HAART J Clin Invest 2005; 115: 128-37.
88. Rizzardi GP, Harari A, Capiluppi B, et al. Treatment of primary HIV-1 infection with cyclosporin A coupled with highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Clin Invest 2002; 109: 681-8.
89. Bahr GM, De La Tribonniere X, Darcissac E, et al. Clinical and immunological effects of a 6 week immunotherapy cycle with murabutide in HIV-1 patients with unsuccessful long-term antiretroviral treatment. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003; 51: 1377-88.
90. De La Tribonniere X, Mouton Y, Vidal V, et al. A phase I study of a six-week cycle of immunotherapy with Murabutide in HIV-1 patients naive to antiretrovirals. Med Sci Monit 2003; 9:143-50.