Insulin resistance and the metabolic syndrome

Minerva Medica

Volumn 99, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 253-262

  Lann, D ^a   Gallagher, E ^a   LeRoith, D ^a  

^a MOUNT SINAI SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Comorbidity; Insulin resistance; Metabolic syndrome X; Risk factors

Indexed keywords

ADIPOCYTOKINE; ATENOLOL; ATORVASTATIN; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CAPTOPRIL; DIURETIC AGENT; FIBRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; GLIBENCLAMIDE; GLUCOSE; GLUCOSE TRANSPORTER 4; HEMOGLOBIN A1C; INSULIN RECEPTOR; INSULIN RECEPTOR SUBSTRATE 1; INSULIN RECEPTOR SUBSTRATE 2; INTERLEUKIN 1; INTERLEUKIN 6; LOSARTAN; METFORMIN; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; NICOTINIC ACID; PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL 3 KINASE; PIOGLITAZONE; RAMIPRIL; RESISTIN; ROSIGLITAZONE; ROSUVASTATIN; SIMVASTATIN; STATINE DERIVATIVE; UNINDEXED DRUG;

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMORBIDITY; DEATH; DIABETES MELLITUS; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE SEVERITY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN RELEASE; INSULIN RESISTANCE; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; MONOTHERAPY; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OBESITY; PANCREAS ISLET BETA CELL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SIDE EFFECT;

CYTOKINES; DYSLIPIDEMIAS; FATTY ACIDS, NONESTERIFIED; GLUCOSE; GLUCOSE TRANSPORTER TYPE 4; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; INFLAMMATION; INSULIN; INSULIN RESISTANCE; INSULIN-SECRETING CELLS; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; OBESITY;

EID: 46449121984     PISSN: 00264806     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (85)

1. Sesti G. Pathophysiology of insulin resistance. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;20:665-79.
2. LeRoith D. Beta-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes: role of metabolic and genetic abnormalities. Am J Med 2002;113(Suppl 6A):3S-11S.
3. Vauhkonen I, Niskanen L, Vanninen E, Kainulainen S, Uusitupa M, Laakso M Defects in insulin secretion and insulin action in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus are inherited. Metabolic studies on offspring of diabetic probands. J Clin Invest 1998;101:86-96.
4. Pi-Sunyer X. The metabolic syndrome: how to approach differing definitions. Med Clin North Am 2007;91:1025-40.
5. Alberti KG, Zimmet P, Shaw J. The metabolic syndrome - a new worldwide definition. Lancet 2005;366:1059-62.
6. Ford ES, Giles WH, Dietz WH. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among US adults: findings from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. JAMA 2002;287:356-9.
7. Ford ES, Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome defined by the International Diabetes Federation among adults in the U.S. Diabetes Care 2005;28:2745-9.
8. Mancia G, Bombelli M, Corrao G, Facchetti R, Madotto F, Giannattasio C et al. Metabolic syndrome in the Pressioni Arteriose Monitorate E Loro Associazioni (PAMELA) Study: daily life blood pressure, cardiac damage, and prognosis. Hypertension 2007;49:40-7.
9. Maggi S, Noale M, Gallina P, Bianchi D, Marzari C, Limongi F et al. Metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease in an elderly Caucasian cohort: the Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2006;61:505-10.
10. Welty TK, Lee ET, Yeh J, Cowan LD, Go O, Fabsitz RR et al. Cardiovascular disease risk factors among American Indians: The strong heart study. Am J Epidemiol 1995;142:269-87.
11. Araneta MRG, Wingard DL, Barrett-Connor E. Type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome in Filipina-American Women: a high-risk nonobese population. Diabetes Care 2002;25:494-9.
12. Simmons D, Thompson CF. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among adult New Zealanders of Polynesian and European descent. Diabetes Care 2004;27:3002-4.
13. Nathan BM, Moran A. Metabolic complications of obesity in childhood and adolescence: more than just diabetes. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2008;15:21-9.
14. Gami AS, Witt BJ, Howard DE, Erwin PJ, Gami LA, Somers VK et al. Metabolic syndrome and risk of incident cardiovascular events and death: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007;49:403-14.
15. Ford ES. Risks for all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes associated with the metabolic syndrome: a summary of the evidence. Diabetes Care 2005;28:1769-78.
16. Biddinger SB, Kahn CR. From mice to men: insights into the insulin resistance syndromes. Annu Rev Physiol 2006;68:123-58.
17. Del Prato S, Leonetti F, Simonson DC, Sheehan P, Matsuda M, DeFronzo RA et al. Effect of sustained physiologic hyperinsulinaemia and hyperglycaemia on insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity in man. Diabetologia 1994;37:1025-35.
18. Roth J, Qiang X, Marbán SL, Redelt H, Lowell BC. The obesity pandemic: where have we been and where are we going? Obes Res 2004;(12 Suppl 2):88S-101S.
19. Kido Y, Burks DJ, Withers D, Bruning JC, Kahn CR, White MF et al. Tissue-specific insulin resistance in mice with mutations in the insulin receptor, IRS-1, and IRS-2. J Clin Invest 2000;105:199-205.
20. George S, Rochford JJ, Wolfrum C, Gray SL, Schinner S, Wilson JC et al. A family with severe insulin resistance and diabetes due to a mutation in AKT2. Science 2004;304:1325-8.
21. Trayhurn P, Wood IS. Adipokines: inflammation and the pleiotropic role of white adipose tissue. Br J Nutr 2004;92:347-55.
22. Salmenniemi U, Ruotsalainen E, Pihlajamäki J, Vauhkonen I, Kainulainen S, Punnonen K et al. Multiple abnormalities in glucose and energy metabolism and coordinated changes in levels of adiponectin, cytokines, and adhesion molecules in subjects with metabolic syndrome. Circulation 2004;110:3842-8.
23. Roth RA, Liu F, Chin JE. Biochemical mechanisms of insulin resistance. Horm Res 1994;(41 Suppl 2):51-5.
24. Hotamisligil GS, Shargill NS, Spiegelman BM, Adipose expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha: direct role in obesity-linked insulin resistance. Science 1993;259:87-91.
25. Qi Y, Nie Z, Lee YS, Singhal NS, Scherer PE, Lazar MA et al. Loss of resistin improves glucose homeostasis in leptin deficiency. Diabetes 2006;55:3083-90.
26. Oberley LW. Free radicals and diabetes. Free Radic Biol Med 1988;5:113-24.
27. Nawrocki AR, Scherer PE. The delicate balance between fat and muscle: adipokines in metabolic disease and musculoskeletal inflammation. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2004;4:281-9.
28. Nesto R. C-reactive protein, its role in inflammation, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease, and the effects of insulin-sensitizing treatment with thiazolidinediones. Diabet Med 2004;21:810-7.
29. Jialal I, Stein D, Balis D, Grundy SM, Adams-Huet B, Devaraj S. Effect of hydroxymethyl glutaryl coenzyme a reductase inhibitor therapy on high sensitive C-reactive protein levels. Circulation 2001;103:1933-5.
30. Randle PJ, Garland PB, Hales CN, Newsholme EA. The glucose fatty-acid cycle. Its role in insulin sensitivity and the metabolic disturbances of diabetes mellitus. Lancet 1963;1:785-9.
31. Shulman GI. Cellular mechanisms of insulin resistance. J Clin Invest 2000;106:171-6.
32. Belfort R, Mandarino L, Kashyap S, Wirfel K, Pratipanawatr T, Berria R et al. Dose-response effect of elevated plasma free fatty acid on insulin signaling. Diabetes 2005;54:1640-8.
33. Watson RT, Kanzaki M, Pessin JE. Regulated membrane trafficking of the insulin-responsive glucose transporter 4 in adipocytes. Endocr Rev 2004;25:177-204.
34. Al-Khalili L, Forsgren M, Kannisto K, Zierath JR, Lönnqvist F, Krook A. Enhanced insulin-stimulated glycogen synthesis in response to insulin, metformin or rosiglitazone is associated with increased mRNA expression of GLUT4 and peroxisomal proliferator activator receptor gamma co-activator 1. Diabetologia 2005;48:1173-9.
35. Shintani M, Nishimura H, Yonemitsu S, Ogawa Y, Hayashi T, Hosoda K et al. Troglitazone not only increases GLUT4 but also induces its translocation in rat adipocytes. Diabetes 2001;50:2296-300.
36. Kim HJ, Lee JS, Kim CK. Effect of exercise training on muscle glucose transporter 4 protein and intramuscular lipid content in elderly men with impaired glucose tolerance. Eur J Appl Physiol 2004;93:353-8.
37. Goodyear LJ, Kahn BB. Exercise, glucose transport, and insulin sensitivity. Annu Rev Med 1998;49:235-61.
38. Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation 2002;106:3143-421.
39. Alberti KG, Zimmet PZ. Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Part 1: diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus provisional report of a WHO consultation. Diabet Med 1998;15:539-53.
40. Einhorn D, Reaven GM, Cobin RH, Ford E, Ganda OP, Handelsman Y et al. American College of Endocrinology position statement on the insulin resistance syndrome. Endocr Pract 2003;9:237-52.
41. Abbasi F, Brown BW Jr, Lamendola C, McLaughlin T, Reaven GM. Relationship between obesity, insulin resistance, and coronary heart disease risk. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002;40:937-43.
42. Lorenzo C, Williams K, Hunt KJ, Haffner SM. The National Cholesterol Education Program-Adult Treatment Panel III, International Diabetes Federation, and World Health Organization Definitions of the Metabolic Syndrome as Predictors of Incident Cardiovascular Disease and Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2007;30:8-13.
43. Festa A, Williams K, D'Agostino R Jr, Wagenknecht LE, Haffner SM. The Natural Course of {beta}-Cell Function in Nondiabetic and Diabetic Individuals: The Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study. Diabetes 2006;55:1114-20.
44. Porte D, Jr., Kahn SE. Beta-cell dysfunction and failure in type 2 diabetes: potential mechanisms. Diabetes 2001;(50 Suppl 1):S160-3.
45. Maassen JA, Romijn JA, Heine RJ. Fatty acid-induced mitochondrial uncoupling in adipocytes as a key protective factor against insulin resistance and beta cell dysfunction: a new concept in the pathogenesis of obesity-associated type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 2007;50:2036-41.
46. Muoio DM, Newgard CB. Mechanisms of disease: molecular and metabolic mechanisms of insulin resistance and beta-cell failure in type 2 diabetes. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2008;9:193-205.
47. Kahn SE, Hull RL, Utzschneider KM. Mechanisms linking obesity to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Nature 2006;444:840-6.
48. Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, Lachin JM, Walker EA et al. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 2002;346:393-403.
49. DREAM (Diabetes REduction Assessment with ramipril and rosiglitazone Medication) Trial Investigators, Gerstein HC, Yusuf S, Bosch J, Pogue J, Sheridan P et al. Effect of rosiglitazone on the frequency of diabetes in patients with impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2006;368:1096-105.
50. Salpeter SR, Buckley NS, Kahn JA, Salpeter EE. Metaanalysis: metformin treatment in persons at risk for diabetes mellitus. Am J Med 2008;121:149-57.e2.
51. Kahn SE, Haffner SM, Heise MA, Herman WH, Holman RR, Jones NP et al. Glycemic durability of rosiglitazone, metformin, or glyburide monotherapy. N Engl J Med 2006;355:2427-43.
52. Grundy SM, Brewer HB Jr, Cleeman JI, Smith SC Jr, Lenfant C; American Heart Association; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Definition of metabolic syndrome: Report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/American Heart Association conference on scientific issues related to definition. Circulation 2004;109:433-8.
53. McLaughlin T, Abbasi F, Cheal K, Chu J, Lamendola C, Reaven G. Use of metabolic markers to identify overweight individuals who are insulin resistant. Ann Intern Med 2003;139:802-9.
54. Aguilera CM, Gil-Campos M, Canete R, Gil A. Alterations in plasma and tissue lipids associated with obesity and metabolic syndrome. Clin Sci (Lond) 2008;114:183-93.
55. Avramoglu RK, Basciano H, Adeli K. Lipid and lipoprotein dysregulation in insulin resistant states. Clin Chim Acta 2006;368:1-19.
56. Jones PH, Davidson MH, Stein EA, Bays HE, McKenney JM, Miller E et al. Comparison of the efficacy and safety of rosuvastatin versus atorvastatin, simvastatin, and pravastatin across doses (STELLAR* Trial). Am J Cardiol 2003;92:152-60.
57. Smith DA. Treatment of the dyslipidemia of insulin resistance. Med Clin North Am 2007;91:1185-210, x.
58. Rubins HB, Robins SJ, Collins D, Fye CL, Anderson JW, Elam MB et al. Gemfibrozil for the secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in men with low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Veterans Affairs High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Intervention Trial Study Group. N Engl J Med 1999;341:410-8.
59. Manninen V, Tenkanen L, Koskinen P, Huttunen JK, Mänttäri M, Heinonen OP et al. Joint effects of serum triglyceride and LDL cholesterol and HDL cholesterol concentrations on coronary heart disease risk in the Helsinki Heart Study. Implications for treatment. Circulation 1992;85:37-45.
60. Garg A, Grundy SM. Nicotinic acid as therapy for dyslipidemia in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. JAMA 1990;264:723-6.
61. Grundy SM, Vega GL, McGovern ME, Tulloch BR, Kendall DM, Fitz-Patrick D et al. Efficacy, safety, and tolerability of once-daily niacin for the treatment of dyslipidemia associated with type 2 diabetes: results of the assessment of diabetes control and evaluation of the efficacy of niaspan trial. Arch Intern Med 2002;162:1568-76.
62. Elam MB, Hunninghake DB, Davis KB, Garg R, Johnson C, Egan D et al. Effect of niacin on lipid and lipoprotein levels and glycemic control in patients with diabetes and peripheral arterial disease: the ADMIT study: A randomized trial. Arterial Disease Multiple Intervention Trial. JAMA 2000;284:1263-70.
63. Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R; Prospective Studies Collaboration. Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet 2002;360:1903-13.
64. Ferrannini E, Buzzigoli G, Bonadona R. Insulin resistance in essential hypertension. N Engl J Med 1987;317:350-7.
65. Swislocki AL, Hoffman BB, Reaven GM. Insulin resistance, glucose intolerance and hyperinsulinemia in patients with hypertension. Am J Hypertens 1989;2:419-23.
66. Ferrannini E. Is insulin resistance the cause of the metabolic syndrome? Ann Med 2006;38:42-51.
67. Perkins JM, Davis SN. The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system: a pivotal role in insulin sensitivity and glycemic control. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2008;15:147-52.
68. Chu KY, Lau T, Carlsson PO, Leung PS. Angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockade improves beta-cell function and glucose tolerance in a mouse model of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 2006;55:367-74.
69. Bulow J, Madsen J, Hojgaard L. Reversibility of the effects on local circulation of high lipid concentrations in blood. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1990;50:291-6.
70. Grekin RJ, Vollmer AP, Sider RS. Pressor effects of portal venous oleate infusion. A proposed mechanism for obesity hypertension. Hypertension 1995;26:193-8.
71. Kim JA, Montagnani M, Koh KK, Quon MJ. Reciprocal relationships between insulin resistance and endothelial dysfunction: molecular and pathophysiological mechanisms. Circulation 2006;113:1888-904.
72. Dahlöf B, Devereux RB, Kjeldsen SE, Julius S, Beevers G, de Faire U et al. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the Losartan Intervention For Endpoint reduction in hypertension study (LIFE): a randomised trial against atenolol. Lancet 2002;359:995-1003.
73. Yusuf S, Sleight P, Pogue J, Bosch J, Davies R, Dagenais G. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 2000;342:145-53.
74. Niklason A, Hedner T, Niskanen L, Lanke J; Captopril Prevention Project Study Group. Development of diabetes is retarded by ACE inhibition in hypertensive patients - a subanalysis of the Captopril Prevention Project (CAPPP). J Hypertens 2004;22:645-52.
75. DREAM Trial Investigators, Bosch J, Yusuf S, Gerstein HC, Pogue J, Sheridan P et al. Effect of ramipril on the incidence of diabetes. N Engl J Med 2006;355:1551-62.
76. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL Jr et al. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA 2003;289:2560-72.
77. Lindholm LH, Persson M, Alaupovic P, Carlberg B, Svensson A, Samuelsson O. Metabolic outcome during 1 year in newly detected hypertensives: results of the Antihypertensive Treatment and Lipid Profile in a North of Sweden Efficacy Evaluation (ALPINE study). J Hypertens 2003;21:1563-74.
78. Suzuki T, Homma S. Treatment of hypertension and other cardiovascular risk factors in patients with metabolic syndrome. Med Clin North Am 2007;91:1211-23.
79. Eckel, RH, Grundy SM, Zimmet PZ. The metabolic syndrome. Lancet 2005;365:1415-28.
80. Arita Y, Kihara S, Ouchi N, Takahashi M, Maeda K, Miyagawa J et al. Paradoxical decrease of an adipose-specific protein, adiponectin, in obesity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1999;257:79-83.
81. Yang WS, Lee WJ, Funahashi T, Tanaka S, Matsuzawa Y, Chao CL et al. Weight reduction increases plasma levels of an adipose-derived anti-inflammatory protein, adiponectin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:3815-9.
82. Ailhaud G., Adipose tissue as a secretory organ: from adipogenesis to the metabolic syndrome. C R Biol 2006;329:570-7; discussion 653-5.
83. Gastaldelli A, Miyazaki Y, Mahankali A, Berria R, Pettiti M, Buzzigoli E et al. The effect of pioglitazone on the liver: role of adiponectin. Diabetes Care 2006;29:2275-81.
84. Kim SK, Hur KY, Kim HJ, Shim WS, Ahn CW, Park SW et al. The increase in abdominal subcutaneous fat depot is an independent factor to determine the glycemic control after rosiglitazone treatment. Eur J Endocrinol 2007;157:167-74.
85. Carey DG, Cowin GJ, Galloway GJ, Jones NP, Richards JC, Biswas N et al. Effect of rosiglitazone on insulin sensitivity and body composition in type 2 diabetic patients [corrected]. Obes Res 2002;10:1008-15.