Respiratory muscle fibres: Specialisation and plasticity

Thorax

Volumn 59, Issue 9, 2004, Pages 808-817

  Polla, B ^a   D'Antona, G ^b   Bottinelli, R ^b   Reggiani, C ^c  

^a C Arrigo Children's Hospital   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PAVIA   (Italy)

^c UNIVERSITY OF PADOVA   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; GENTAMICIN; GLUCOCORTICOID; MYOSIN HEAVY CHAIN; MYOSIN LIGHT CHAIN; OLIGONUCLEOTIDE; SALBUTAMOL;

ADOPTIVE IMMUNOTHERAPY; AEROBIC METABOLISM; AGING; BREATHING MUSCLE; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; DIAPHRAGM MUSCLE; ENZYME ACTIVITY; EXERCISE TOLERANCE; FATIGUE; GENE THERAPY; HUMAN; HYPOXIA; INTERCOSTAL MUSCLE; MALNUTRITION; MUSCLE ATROPHY; MUSCLE CAPILLARY; MUSCLE DEVELOPMENT; MUSCLE EXERCISE; MUSCLE FIBER CONTRACTION; MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY; NONHUMAN; PERINATAL DEVELOPMENT; PLASTICITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESPIRATION LOAD; RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASE; REVIEW; SKELETAL MUSCLE;

ADRENERGIC BETA-AGONISTS; ANOXIA; GLUCOCORTICOIDS; HUMANS; MALNUTRITION; MUSCLE CONTRACTION; MUSCLE FIBERS; MUSCULAR DYSTROPHIES; PULMONARY DISEASE, CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE; RESPIRATORY MUSCLES;

EID: 4544325152     PISSN: 00406376     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1136/thx.2003.009894     Document Type: Review

References (179)

1. Schiaffino S, Reggiani C. Molecular diversity of myofibrillar proteins: gene regulation and functional significance. Physiol Rev 1996;76:371-423.
2. Bottinelli R, Reggiani C. Human skeletal muscle fibres: molecular and functional diversity. Progr Biophys Mol Biol 2000;73:195-262.
3. Campbell WG, Gordon SE, Carlson CJ, et al. Differential global gene expression in red and white skeletal muscles. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2001;280:C763-8.
4. He Z-H, Bottinelli R, Pellegrino MA, et al. ATP consumption and efficiency of human single muscle fibers with different myosin isoform composition. Biophys J 2000;79:945-61.
5. 2+-ATPase from sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle biopsies. Biochem J 1989;260:443-8.
6. Leberer E, Pette D. Immunochemical quantification of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca-ATPase, of calsequestrin and of parvalbumin in rabbit skeletal muscles of defined fiber composition. Eur J Biochem 1986;156:489-96.
7. Wu KD, Lytton J. Molecular cloning and quantification of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase isoforms in rat muscles. Am J Physiol 1993;264:C331-41.
8. 2+ release units and couplons in a variety of skeletal and cardiac muscles. Biophys J 1999;77:1528-39.
9. Lytton J, Westlin M, Burk SE, et al. Functional comparisons between isoforms of the sarcoplasmic or endoplasmic reticulum family of calcium pumps. J Biol Chem 1992;267:14483-9.
10. Citterio G, Agostoni E, Piccoli S, et al. Selective activation of parasternal muscle fibers according to breathing rate. Respir Physiol 1982;48:281-95.
11. Citterio G, Sironi S, Piccoli S, et al. Slow to fast shift in inspiratory muscle fibers during heat tachypnea. Respir Physiol 1983;51:259-74.
12. Blank S, Chen V, Iannuzzo C. Biochemical characteristics of mammalian diaphragms. Respir Physiol 1988;74:115-26.
13. Hodge K, Powers SK, Coombes J, et al. Bioenergetic characteristics of the costal and crural diaphragm in mammals. Respir Physiol 1997;109:149-54.
14. Lieberman DA, Faulkner JA, Craig AB, et al. Performance and histochemical composition of guinea pig and human diaphragm. J Appl Physiol 1973;34:233-7.
15. Sanchez J, Medrano G, Debesse B, et al. Muscle fibre types in costal and crural diaphragm in normal men and in patients with moderate chronic respiratory disease. Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir 1985;21:351-6.
16. Mizuno M. Human respiratory muscles: fibre morphology and capillary supply. Eur Respir J 1991;4:587-601.
17. Ramirez-Sarmiento A, Orozco-Levi M, Guell R, et al. Inspiratory muscle training in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: structural adaptation and physiologic outcomes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;166:1491-7.
18. Ruff RL, Whittlesey D. Na+ current densities and voltage dependence in human intercostal muscle fibres. J Physiol 1992;458:85-97.
19. Keens TG, Bryan AC, Levison H, et al. Developmental pattern of muscle fiber types in human ventilatory muscles. J Appl Physiol 1978;44:909-13.
20. Keens TG, Chen V, Patel P, et al. Cellular adaptations of the ventilatory muscles to a chronic increased respiratory load. J Appl Physiol 1978;44:905-8.
21. Burke RE, Levine DN, Tsairis P, et al. Physiological types and histochemical profiles in motor units of the cat gastrocnemius. J Physiol 1973;234:723-48.
22. Burke RE, Levine DN, Zajac FE. Mammalian motor units: physiological-histochemical correlation in three types in cat gastrocnemius. Science 1971;174:709-12.
23. Kugelberg E. Histochemical composition, contraction speed and fatiguability of rat soleus motor units. J Neurol Sci 1973;20:177-98.
24. Sieck GC, Blanco CE. Postnatal changes in the distribution of succinate dehydrogenase activities among diaphragm muscle fibers. Pediatr Res 1991;29:586-93.
25. Sieck GC, Fournier M, Prakash YS, et al. Myosin phenotype and SDH enzyme variability among motor unit fibers. J Appl Physiol 1996;80:2179-89.
26. Green HJ, Reichmann H, Pette D. Inter- and intraspecies comparisons of fibre type distribution and of succinate dehydrogenase activity in type I, IIA and IIB fibres of mammalian diaphragms. Histochemistry 1984;81:67-73.
27. Fitting JW. Respiratory muscle fatigue limiting physical exercise? Eur Respir J 1991;4:103-8.
28. Johnson BD, Aaron EA, Babcock MA, et al. Respiratory muscle fatigue during exercise: implications for performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996;28:1129-37.
29. Green HJ, Plyley MJ, Smith DM, et al. Extreme endurance training and fiber type adaptation in rat diaphragm. J Appl Physiol 1989;66:1914-20.
30. Bertocchini F, Ovitt CE, Conti A, et al. Requirement for the ryanodine receptor type 3 for efficient contraction in neonatal skeletal muscles. Embo J 1997;16:6956-63.
31. Rossi R, Bottinelli R, Sorrentino V, et al. Response to caffeine and ryanodine receptor isoforms in mouse skeletal muscles. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2001;281:C585-94.
32. Conklin MW, Ahern CA, Vallejo P, et al. Comparison of Ca(2+) sparks produced independently by two ryanodine receptor isoforms (type 1 or type 3). Biophys J 2000;78:1777-85.
33. Dimitriou G, Greenhough A, Rafferty GF, et al. Effects of maturity on maximal transdiaphragmatic pressure in infants during crying. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;164:433-6.
34. Dimitriou G, Greenhough A, Moxham J, et al. Influence of maturation on infant diaphragm function assessed by magnetic stimulation of phrenic nerves. Pediatr Pulmonol 2003;35:17-22.
35. Johnson BD, Wilson LE, Zhan WZ, et al. Contractile properties of the developing diaphragm correlate with myosin heavy chain phenotype. J Appl Physiol 1994;77:481-7.
36. Coirault C, Lambert F, Joseph T, et al. Developmental chanes in cross bridge properties and myosin isoforms in hamster diaphragm. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;156:959-67.
37. Geiger PC, Cody MJ, Macken RL, et al. Mechanisms underlying increased force generation by rat diaphragm fibers during development. J Appl Physiol 2001;90:380-8.
38. Keens TG, Bryan AC, Levison H, et al. Developmental pattern of muscle fiber types in human ventilatory muscles. J Appl Physiol 1978;44:909-13.
39. Baldwin KM, Haddad F. Skeletal muscle plasticity: cellular and molecular responses to altered physical activity paradigms. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2002;81:S40-51.
40. LeBlanc A, Rowe R, Evans H, et al. Muscle atrophy during long duration bed rest. Int J Sports Med 1997;18(Suppl 4):S283-5.
41. Narici MV, Kayser B, Barattini P, et al. Changes in electrically evoked skeletal muscle contractions during 17- day spaceflignt and bed rest. Int J Sports Med 1997;18(Suppl 4):S290-2.
42. Stevens L, Mounier Y. Evidences for slow to fast changes in the contractile proteins of rat soleus muscle after hindlimb suspension: studies on skinned fibers. Physiologist 1990;33:S90-1.
43. Hortobagyi T, Dempsey L, Fraser D, et al. Changes in muscle strength, muscle fibre size and myofibrillar gene expression after immobilization and retraining in humans. J Physiol 2000;524:293-304.
44. Edgerton VR, Zhou MY, Ohira Y, et al. Human fiber size and enzymatic properties after 5 and 11 days of space flight. J Appl Physiol 1995;78:1733-9.
45. Fitts RH, Riley DR, Widrick JJ. Functional and structural adaptations of skeletal muscle to microgravity. J Exp Biol 2001;204:3201-8.
46. Berg HE, Larsson L, Tesch PA. Lower limb skeletal muscle function after 6 wk of bed rest. J Appl Physiol 1997;82:182-8.
47. Round JM, Barr FM, Moffat B, et al. Fibre areas and histochemical fibre types in the quadriceps muscle of paraplegic subjects. J Neurol Sci 1993;116:207-11.
48. Booth FW, Thomason DB. Molecular and cellular adaptation of muscle in response to exercise: perspectives of various models. Physiol Rev 1991;71:541-85.
49. Holloszy JO, Booth FW. Biochemical adaptations to endurance exercise in muscle. Annu Rev Physiol 1976;38:273-91.
50. Baldwin KM, Klinkerfuss GH, Terjung RL, et al. Respiratory capacity of white, red, and intermediate muscle: adaptative response to exercise. Am J Physiol 1972;222:373-8.
51. Hakkinen K, Alen M, Komi PV. Changes in isometric force- and relaxation-time, electromyographic and muscle fibre characteristics of human skeletal muscle during strength training and detraining. Acta Physiol Scand 1985;125:573-85.
52. MacDougall JD, Sale DG, Moroz JR, et al. Mitochondrial volume density in human skeletal muscle following heavy resistance training. Med Sci Sports 1979;11:164-6.
53. Saltin B, Gollnick PD. Skeletal muscle adaptability: significance for metabolism and performance. In: Handbook of physiology, skeletal muscle. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society, 1983:555-631.
54. Allemeier CA, Fry AC, Johnson P, et al. Effects of sprint cycle training an human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 1994;77:2385-90.
55. Andersen JL, Klitgaard H, Saltin B. Myosin heavy chain isoforms in single fibres from m. vastus lateralis of sprinters: influence of training, Acta Physiol Scand 1994;151:135-42.
56. Cadefau J, Casademont J, Grau JM, et al. Biochemical and histochemical adaptation to sprint training in young athletes. Acta Physiol Scand 1990;140:341-51.
57. Esbjornsson M, Hellsten-Westing Y, Balsom PD, et al. Muscle fibre type changes with sprint training: effect of training pattern. Acta Physiol Scand 1993;149:245-6.
58. Pette D, Staron RS. Mammalian skeletal muscle fiber type transitions. Int Rev Cytol 1997;170:143-223.
59. Harridge SD, Bottinelli R, Canepari M, et al. Sprint training, in vitro and in vivo muscle function, and myosin heavy chain expression. J Appl Physiol 1998;84:442-9.
60. Baumann H, Jaggi M, Soland F, et al. Exercise training induces transitions of myosin isoform subunits within histochemically typed human muscle fibres. Pflugers Arch 1987;409:349-60.
61. Dempsey JA. J.B. Wolffe memorial lecture. Is the lung built for exercise? Med Sci Sports Exerc 1986;18:143-55.
62. Johnson BD, Babcock MA, Suman OE, et al. Exercise-induced diaphragmatic fatigue in healthy humans. J Physiol 1993;460:385-405.
63. Rochester DF. The diaphragm in COPD. Better than expected, but not good enough. N Engl J Med 1991;325:961-2.
64. Powers SK, Criswell D, Lieu FK, et al. Diaphragmatic fiber type specific adaptation to endurance exercise. Respir Physiol 1992;89:195-207.
65. Powers SK, Criswell D, Lieu FK, et al. Exercise-induced cellular alterations in the diaphragm. Am J Physiol 1992;263:R1093-8.
66. Powers SK, Criswell D, Lawler J, et al. Regional training-induced alterations in diaphragmatic oxidative and antioxidant enzymes. Respir Physiol 1994;95:227-37.
67. Powers SK, Criswell D, Lawler J, et al. Influence of exercise and fiber type on antioxidant enzyme activity in rat skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol 1994;266:R375-80.
68. Dudley GA, Abraham WM, Terjung RL. Influence of exercise intensity and duration on biochemical adaptations in skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 1982;53:844-50.
69. Fregosi RF, Sanjak M, Paulson DJ. Endurance training does not affect diaphragm mitochondrial respiration. Respir Physiol 1987;67:225-37.
70. Green HJ, Reichmann H. Differential response of enzyme activities in rat diaphragm and intercostal muscles to exercise training. J Neurol Sci 1988;84:157-65.
71. Metzger JM, Fitts RH. Contractile and biochemical properties of diaphragm: effects of exercise training and fatigue. J Appl Physiol 1986;60:1752-8.
72. Gosselin LE, Betlach M, Vailas AC, et al. Training-induced alterations in young and senescent rat diaphragm muscle. J Appl Physiol 1992;72:1506-11.
73. Sugiura T, Morimoto A, Murakami N. Effects of endurance training on myosin heavy-chain isoforms and enzyme activity in the rat diaphragm. Pflugers Arch 1992;421:77-81.
74. Sugiura T, Morimoto A, Sakata Y, et al. Myosin heavy chain isoform changes in rat diaphragm are induced by endurance training. Jpn J Physiol 1990;40:759-63.
75. Halseth AE, Fogt DL, Fregosi RF, et al. Metabolic responses of rat respiratory muscles to voluntary exercise training. J Appl Physiol 1995;79:902-7.
76. Lotters F, van Tol B, Kwakkel G, et al. Effects of controlled inspiratory muscle training in patients with COPD: a meta-analysis. Eur Respir J 2002;20:570-6.
77. Romer LM, McConnell AK, Jones DA. Effects of inspiratory muscle training on time-trial performance in trained cyclists. J Sports Sci 2002;20:547-62.
78. Williams JS, Wongsathikun J, Boon SM, et al. Inspiratory muscle training fails to improve endurance capacity in athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002;34:1194-8.
79. Sturdy G, Hillman D, Green D, et al. Feasibility of high-intensity, interval-based respiratory muscle training in COPD. Chest 2003;123:142-50.
80. Darnley GM, Gray AC, McClure SJ, et al. Effects of resistive breathing on exercise capacity and diaphragm function in patients with ischaemic heart disease. Eur J Heart Fail 1999;1:297-300.
81. Ramirez-Sarmiento A, Orozco-Levi M, Guell R, et al. Inspiratory muscle training in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: structural adaptation and physiologic outcomes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;166:1491-7.
82. Gayan-Ramirez G, Decramer M. Effects of mechanical ventilation on diaphragm function and biology. Eur Respir J 2002;20:1579-86.
83. Bruce SA, Newton D, Woledge RC. Effect of age on voluntary force and cross-sectional area of human adductor pollicis muscle. Q J Exp Physiol 1989;74:359-62.
84. Davies CT, White MJ, Young K. Electrically evoked and voluntary maximal isometric tension in relation to dynamic muscle performance in elderly male subjects, aged 69 years. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1983;51:37-43.
85. Larsson L, Grimby G, Karlsson J. Muscle strength and speed of movement in relation to age and muscle morphology. J Appl Physiol 1979;46:451-6.
86. Larsson L. Morphological and functional characteristics of the ageing skeletal muscle in man. A cross-sectional study. Acta Physiol Scand Suppl 1978;457:1-36.
87. Young A, Stokes M, Crowe M. The size and strength of the quadriceps muscles of old and young men. Clin Physiol 1985;5:145-54.
88. Young A, Stokes M, Crowe M. Size and strength of the quadriceps muscles of old and young women. Eur J Clin Invest 1984;14:282-7.
89. Narici MV, Bordini M, Cerretelli P. Effect of aging on human adductor pollicis muscle function. J Appl Physiol 1991;71:1277-81.
90. Grimby G, Saltin B. The ageing muscle. Clin Physiol 1983;3:209-18.
91. Grimby G, Danneskiold-Samsoe B, Hvid K, et al. Morphology and enzymatic capacity in arm and leg muscles in 78-81 year old men and women. Acta Physiol Scand 1982;115:125-34.
92. Campbell MJ, McComas AJ, Petito F. Physiological changes in ageing muscles. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1973;36:174-82.
93. Lexell J. Human aging, muscle mass, and fiber type composition. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1995;50:11-6.
94. Caccia MR, Harris JB, Johnson MA. Morphology and physiology of skeletal muscle in aging rodents. Muscle Nerve 1979;2:202-12.
95. Klitgaard H, Mantoni M, Schiaffino S, et al. Function, morphology and protein expression of ageing skeletal muscle: a cross-sectional study of elderly men with different training backgrounds. Acta Physiol Scand 1990;140:41-54.
96. Aoyagi Y, Shephard RJ. Aging and muscle function. Sports Med 1992;14:376-96.
97. Frontera WR, Hughes VA, Fielding RA, et al. Aging of skeletal muscle: a 12-yr longitudinal study. J Appl Physiol 2000;88:1321-6.
98. Klitgaard H, Zhou M, Schiaffino S, et al. Ageing alters the myosin heavy chain composition of single fibres from human skeletal muscle. Acta Physiol Scand 1990;140:55-62.
99. D'Antona G, Pellegrino MA, Adami R, et al. The effect of ageing and immobilization on structure and function of human skeletal muscle fibres. J Physiol 2003;552:499-511.
100. Conley KE, Jubrian SA, Esselman PC. Oxidative capacity and aging in human muscles. J Physiol 2000;526:203-10.
101. Tonkonogi M, Fernstrom M, Walsh B, et al. Reduced oxidative power but unchanged capacity in skeletal muscle from aged humans. Pflugers Arch 2002;446:261-9.
102. Criswell DS, Powers SK, Herb RA, et al. Mechanism of specific force deficit in the senescent rat diaphragm. Respir Physiol 1997;107:149-55.
103. Gosselin LE, Johnson BD, Sieck GC. Age-related changes in diaphragm muscle contractile properties and myosin heavy chain isoforms. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;150:174-8.
104. Polkey MI, Harris ML, Hughes PD, et al. The contractile properties of the elderly human diaphragm. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:1560-4.
105. Tolep K, Higgins N, Muza S, et al. Comparison of diaphragm strength between healthy adult elderly and young men. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;152:677-82.
106. van Lunteren E, Vafaie H, Salomone RJ. Comparative effects of aging on pharyngeal and diaphragm muscles. Respir Physiol 1995;99:113-25.
107. Oliven A, Carmi N, Coleman R, et al. Age-related changes in upper airway muscles morphological and oxidative properties. Exp Gerontol 2001;36:1673-86.
108. Powers SK, Lawler J, Criswell D, et al. Alterations in diaphragmatic oxidative and antioxidant enzymes in the senescent Fischer 344 rat. J Appl Physiol 1992;72:2317-21.
109. Powers SK, Lawler J, Criswell D, et al. Aging and respiratory muscle metabolic plasticity: effects of endurance training. J Appl Physiol 1992;72:1068-73.
110. Gozal D. Pulmonary manifestations of neuromuscular disease with special reference to Duchenne muscular dystrophy and spinal muscular atrophy. Pediatr Pulmonol 2000;29:141-50.
111. Padberg GW, Lunt PW, Koch M, et al. Diagnostic criteria for facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy. Neuromuscul Disord 1991;1:231-4.
112. Mercuri E, Yuva Y, Brown SC, et al. Collagen VI involvement in Ullrich syndrome: a clinical, genetic, and immunonistochemical study. Neurology 2002;58:1354-9.
113. De Bruin PF, Ueki J, Bush A, et al. Diaphragm thickness and inspiratory strength in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Thorax 1997;52:472-5.
114. Petrof BJ, Stedman HH, Shrager JB, et al. Adaptations in myosin heavy chain expression and contractile function in dystrophic mouse diaphragm. Am J Physiol 1993;265:C834-41.
115. Stedman HH, Sweeney HL, Shrager JB, et al. The mdx mouse diaphragm reproduces the degenerative changes of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Nature 1991;352:536-9.
116. Burbach JA, Schlenker EH, Johnson JL. Morphometry, histochemistry, and contractility of dystrophic hamster diaphragm. Am J Physiol 1987;253:R275-84.
117. Patel ND, Jannapureddy SR, Hwang W, et al. Altered muscle force and stiffness of skeletal muscles in alpha -sarcoglycan-deficient mice. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2003;284:C962-8.
118. Skuk D, Vilquin JT, Tremblay JP. Experimental and therapeutic approaches to muscular dystrophies. Curr Opin Neurol 2002;15:563-9.
119. Harper SQ, Hauser MA, DelloRusso C, et al. Modular flexibility of dystrophin: implications far gene therapy of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Nat Med 2002;8:253-61.
120. Watchko J, O'Day T, Wang B, et al. Adeno-associated virus vector-mediated minidystrophin gene therapy improves dystrophic muscle contractile function in mdx mice. Hum Gene Ther 2002;13:1451-60.
121. Allamand V, Donahue KM, Straub V, et al. Early adenovirus-mediated gene transfer effectively prevents muscular dystrophy in alpha-sarcaglycan-deficient mice. Gene Ther 2000;7:1385-91.
122. Xiao X, Li J, Tsao YP, et al. Full functional rescue of a complete muscle (TA) in dystrophic hamsters by adeno-associated virus vector-directed gene therapy. J Virol 2000;74:1436-42.
123. Gregorevic P, Chamberlain JS. Gene therapy for muscular dystrophy - a review of promising progress. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2003;3:803-14.
124. Barton-Davis ER, Cordier L, Shoturma DI, et al. Aminoglycoside antibiotics restore dystrophin function to skeletal muscles of mdx mice. J Clin Invest 1999;104:375-81.
125. Lu QL, Mann CJ, Lou F, et al. Functional amounts of dystrophin produced by skipping the mutated exon in the mdx dystrophic mouse. Nat Med 2003;9:1009-14.
126. Dunant P, Walter MC, Karpati G, et al. Gentamicin fails to increase dystrophin expression in dystrophin-deficient muscle. Muscle Nerve 2003;27:624-7.
127. Sampaolesi M, Torrente Y, Innocenzi A, et al. Cell therapy of alpha-sarcoglycan null dystrophic mice through intra-arterial delivery of mesoangioblasts. Science 2003;301:487-92.
128. Prezant DJ, Richner B, Aldrich TK, et al. Effect of long-term undernutrition on male and female rat diaphragm contractility, fatigue, and fiber types. J Appl Physiol 1994;76:1540-7.
129. Lewis MI, Sieck GC, Fournier M, et al. Effect of nutritional deprivation on diaphragm contractility and muscle fiber size. J Appl Physiol 1986;60:596-603.
130. Arora NS, Rochester DF. Respiratory muscle strength and maximal voluntary ventilation in undernourished patients. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982;126:5-8.
131. Goldspink DF. The effects of food deprivation on protein turnover and nucleic acid concentrations of active and immobilized extensor digitorum longus muscles of the rat. Biochem J 1978;176:603-6.
132. Parsons D, Riedy M, Moore RL, et al. Acute fasting and fiber number in rat soleus muscle. J Appl Physiol 1982;53:1234-8.
133. Hegarty PV, Kim KO. Changes in skeletal muscle cellularity in starved and refed young rats. Br J Nutr 1980;44:123-7.
134. Kelsen SG, Ference M, Kapoor S. Effects of prolonged undernutrition on structure and function of the diaphragm. J Appl Physiol 1985;58:1354-9.
135. Lanz JK, Donahoe M, Rogers RM, et al. Effects of growth hormone on diaphragmatic recovery from malnutrition. J Appl Physiol 1992;73:801-5.
136. Dekhuijzen PN, Gayan-Ramirez G, Bisschop A, et al. Corticosteroid treatment and nutritional deprivation cause a different pattern of atrophy in rat diaphragm. J Appl Physiol 1995;78:629-37.
137. Gardiner PF, Montanaro G, Simpson DR, et al. Effects of glucocorticoid treatment and food restriction on rat hindlimb muscles. Am J Physiol 1980;238:E124-30.
138. Goodman MN, McElaney MA, Ruderman NB. Adaptation to prolonged starvation in the rat: curtailment of skeletal muscle proteolysis. Am J Physiol 1981;241:E321-7.
139. Oldfors A, Mair WG, Sourander P. Muscle changes in protein-deprived young rats. A morphometrical, histochemical and ultrastructural study. J Neurol Sci 1983;59:291-302.
140. Mlekusch W, Paletta B, Truppe W, et al. Plasma concentrations of glucose, corticosterone, glucagon and insulin and liver content of metabolic substrates and enzymes during starvation and additional hypoxia in the rat. Horm Metab Res 1981;13:612-4.
141. Hennig R, Lomo T. Firing patterns of motor units in normal rats. Nature 1985;314:164-6.
142. Dureuil B, Viires N, Veber B, et al. Acute diaphragmatic changes induced by starvation in rats. Am J Clin Nutr 1989;49:738-44.
143. Lewis MI, Sieck GC. Effect of acute nutritional deprivation on diaphragm structure and function. J Appl Physiol 1990;68:1938-44.
144. Prezant DJ, Valentine DE, Kim HH, et al. Effects of starvation and refeeding on adult male rat diaphragm contractility, fatigue, and fiber types. J Appl Physiol 1993;74:742-9.
145. Lewis MI, Lorusso TJ, Zhan WZ, et al. Interactive effects of denervation and malnutrition on diaphragm structure and function. J Appl Physiol 1996;81:2165-72.
146. Koerts-De Lang E, Schols AM, Wouters EF, et al. Contractile properties and histochemical characteristics of the rat diaphragm after prolonged triamcinolone treatment and nutritional deprivation. J Muscle Res Cell Motil 1998;19:549-55.
147. Decramer M, Stas KJ. Corticosteroid-induced myopathy involving respiratory muscles in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992;146:800-2.
148. Decramer M, de Bock V, Dom R. Functional and histologic picture of steroid-induced myopathy in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;153:1958-64.
149. Polla B, Bottinelli R, Sandoli D, et al. Cortisone-induced changes in myosin heavy chain distribution in respiratory and hindlimb muscles. Acta Physiol Scand 1994;151:353-61.
150. Lieu FK, Powers SK, Herb RA, et al. Exercise and glucocorticoid-induced diaphragmatic myopathy. J Appl Physiol 1993;75:763-71.
151. Lewis MI, Monn SA, Sieck GC. Effect of corticosteroids on diaphragm fatigue, SDH activity, and muscle fiber size. J Appl Physiol 1992;72:293-301.
152. Zeman RJ, Ludemann R, Easton TG, et al. Slow to fast alterations in skeletal muscle fibers caused by clenbuterol, a beta 2-receptor agonist. Am J Physiol 1988;254:E726-32.
153. Polla B, Cappelli V, Morello F, et al. Effects of beta-2 agonist clenbuterol on respiratory and limb muscles of weanling rats. Am J Physiol 2001;280:R862-9.
154. Pellegrino MA, D'Antona G, Bartolatto S, et al. Clenbuteral antagonizes glucocorticoid-induced athrophy and fibre type transformation in mice. Exp Physiol 2004;89:89-100.
155. Van Der Heijden HF, Dekhuijzen PN, Folgering H, et al. Long-term effects of clenbuterol on diaphragm morphology and contractile properties in emphysematous hamsters. J Appl Physiol 1998;85:215-22.
156. Van der Heijden HFM, Zhan WZ, Prakash YS, et al. Salbutamol enhances isotonic contractile properties of rat diaphragm muscle. J Appl Physiol 1998;85:525-9.
157. Bowman WC. Effects of adrenergic activators and inhibitors on the skeletal muscles. In: Szerekes L, ed. Adrenergic activators and inhibitors. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 1980:47-128.
158. Williams RS, Caron MG, Daniel K. Skeletal muscle beta-adrenergic receptors: variations due to fiber type and training. Am J Physiol 1984;246:E160-7.
159. Jakobsson P, Jorfeldt L, Brundin A. Skeletal muscle metabolites and fibre types in patients with advanced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), with and without chronic respiratory failure. Eur Respir J 1990;3:192-6.
160. Hildebrand IL, Sylven C, Esbjornsson M, et al. Does chronic hypoxaemia induce transformations of fibre types? Acta Physiol Scand 1991;141:435-9.
161. Sato Y, Asoh T, Honda Y, et al. Morphologic and histochemical evaluation of muscle in patients with chronic pulmonary emphysema manifesting generalized emaciation. Eur Neurol 1997;37:116-21.
162. Gosselink R, Troosters T, Decramer M. Peripheral muscle weakness contributes to exercise limitation in COPD. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;153:976-80.
163. Satta A, Migliori GB, Spanevello A, et al. Fibre types in skeletal muscles of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients related to respiratory function and exercise tolerance. Eur Respir J 1997;10:2853-60.
164. Whittom F, Jobin J, Simard PM, et al. Histochemical and morphological characteristics of the vastus lateralis muscle in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998;30:1467-74.
165. Maltois F, LeBlanc P, Simard C, et al. Skeletal muscle adaptation to endurance training in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;154:442-7.
166. Jakobsson P, Jorfeldt L, Henriksson J. Metabolic enzyme activity in the quadriceps femoris muscle in patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151:374-7.
167. Allaire J, Maltais F, LeBlanc P, et al. Lipofuscin accumulation in the vastus lateralis muscle in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Muscle Nerve 2002;25:383-9.
168. Levine S, Kaiser L, Leferovich J, et al. Cellular adaptations in the diaphragm in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med 1997;337:1799-806.
169. Levine S, Gregory C, Nguyen T, et al. Bioenergetic adaptation of individual human diaphragmatic myofibers to severe COPD. J Appl Physiol 2002;92:1205-13.
170. Nguyen T, Shrager J, Kaiser L, et al. Developmental myosin heavy chains in the adult human diaphragm: coexpression patterns and effect of COPD. J Appl Physiol 2000;88:1446-56.
171. Orozco-Levi M, Gea J, Lloreta JL, et al. Subcellular adaptation of the human diaphragm in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 1999;13:371-8.
172. Ramirez-Sarmiento A, Orozco-Levi M, Barreiro E, et al. Expiratory muscle endurance in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2002;57:132-6.
173. Simpson JA, van Eyk JE, Iscoe S. Hypoxemia-induced modification of troponin I and T in canine diaphragm. J Appl Physiol 2000;88:753-60.
174. Bigard AX, Brunet A, Serrurier B, et al. Effects of endurance training at high altitude on diaphragm muscle properties. Pflugers Arch 1992;422:239-44.
175. Itoh K, Moritani T, Ishida K, et al. Hypoxia-induced fibre type transformation in rat hindlimb muscles. Histochemical and electromechanical changes. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1990;60:331-6.
176. Mortola JP, Naso L. Electrophoretic analysis of contractile proteins of the diaphragm in chronically hypoxic rats. Am J Physiol 1995;269:L371-6.
177. Clanton TL, Klawitter PF. Invited review: Adaptive responses of skeletal muscle to intermittent hypoxia: the known and the unknown. J Appl Physiol 2001;90:2476-87.
178. Hoppeler H, Howald H, Cerretelli P. Human muscle structure after exposure to extreme altitude. Experientia 1990;46:1185-7.
179. Howald H, Pette D, Simoneau JA, et al. Effect of chronic hypoxia on muscle enzyme activities. Int J Sports Med 1990;11(Suppl 1):S10-4.