Chapter 4 Meteorology and Atmosphere-Surface Coupling in and around Polynyas

Elsevier Oceanography Series

Volumn 74, Issue , 2007, Pages 127-161

  Minnett, P J ^a   Key, E L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 44349183164     PISSN: 04229894     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/S0422-9894(06)74004-1     Document Type: Review

References (138)

1. Adolphs U., and Wendler G. A pilot study of the interactions between katabatic winds and polynyas at the Adelie Coast, eastern Antarctica. Antarctic Science 7 (1995) 307-314
2. Alam A., and Curry J.A. Evolution of new ice and turbulent fluxes over freezing winter leads. Journal of Geophysical Research 103 (1998) 15783-15802
3. AMAP. Arctic Pollution 2002: Persistent Organic Pollutants, Heavy Metals, Radioactivity, Human Health, Changing Pathways (2002), Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), Oslo, Norway xii + 112 pp
4. Anderson P.S. Evidence for an Antarctic winter coastal polynya. Antarctic Science 5 (1993) 221-226
5. Anderson P.S. A method for rescaling humidity sensors at temperatures well below freezing. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 11 (1994) 1388-1391
6. Andreas E.L. Estimation of heat and mass fluxes over Arctic leads. Monthly Weather Review 108 (1980) 2057-2063
7. Andreas E.L., and Ackley S.F. On the differences in ablation seasons in the Arctic and Antarctic sea ice. Journal of Atmospheric Sciences 39 (1982) 440-447
8. Andreas E.L., and Cash B.A. Convective heat transfer over wintertime leads and polynyas. Journal of Geophysical Research 104 (1999) 25721-25734
9. Andreas E.L., Paulson C.A., Williams R.M., Lindsay R.W., and Businger J.A. The turbulent heat flux from Arctic leads. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 17 (1979) 57-91
10. Arbetter T.E., Lynch A.H., and Bailey D.A. Relationship between synoptic forcing and polynya formation in the Cosmonaut Sea: 1. Polynya climatology. Journal of Geophysical Research 109 (2004) 10.1029/2003JC001837
11. Arctic Climatology Project. Environmental Working Group Arctic Meteorology and Climate Atlas (2000), National Snow and Ice Data Center, Boulder, CO CD-ROM
12. Armstrong A.E., Tremblay L.-B., and Mysak L.A. A data-model intercomparison study of Arctic sea-ice variability. Climate Dynamics 20 (2003) 465-476
13. Barber D.G., and Massom R.A. The role of sea ice in Arctic and Antarctic polynyas. In: Smith W.O.J., and Barber D.G. (Eds). Polynyas: Windows to the World (2007), Elsevier, Amsterdam
14. Barber D.G., Hanesiak J.M., Chan W., and Piwowar J. Sea-ice and meteorological conditions in northern Baffin Bay and the North Water Polynya between 1979 and 1996. Atmosphere-Ocean 39 (2001) 343-359
15. Barrie L.A., et al. Arctic aerosol size-segregated chemical observations in relation to ozone depletion during Polar Sunrise Experiment 1992. Journal of Geophysical Research 99 (1994) 25439-25452
16. Bason, F., 2000. Aerosol optical depth measurements in northern Greenland (76.5°N). In: 7th International Symposium on Renewable Energy Education, Oslo, Norway, pp. 381-383
17. Bigg E.K., and Leck C. Cloud-active particles over the central Arctic Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research 106 (2001) 32155-32166
18. Bromwich D.H., and Kurtz D.D. Katabatic wind forcing of the Terra Nova Bay Polynya. Journal of Geophysical Research 89 (1984) 3561-3572
19. Bromwich D.H., Du Y., and Hines K.M. Wintertime surface winds over the Greenland Ice Sheet. Monthly Weather Review 124 (1996) 1941-1947
20. Bromwich D.H., Wang S.-H., and Monaghan A.J. ERA-40 representation of the Arctic atmospheric moisture budget. ECMWF Workshop on Re-analysis (2001), Reading, UK 28 pp
21. Buch, K.A.J., Sun, C.-H., Thorne, L.R., 1995. Cloud classification using whole-sky imager data. In: Fifth Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Science Team Meeting, San Diego, California, pp. 35-39
22. Burk S.D., and Thompson W.T. Passage of a shallow front across a Beaufort Sea polynya. Journal of Geophysical Research 100 (1995) 4461-4472
23. Burk S.D., Fett R.W., and Englebretson R.E. Numerical simulation of cloud plumes emanating from Arctic leads. Journal of Geophysical Research 102 (1997) 16529-16544
24. Chao S.-Y. Ocean feedback to wind-driven coastal polynyas. Journal of Geophysical Research 104 (1999) 18073-18085
25. Comiso J.C., and Gordon A.L. Cosmonaut polynya in the Southern Ocean: structure and variability. Journal of Geophysical Research 101 (1996) 18297-18313
26. Cullather R.I., Bromwich D., and van Woert M.L. Spatial and temporal variability of Antarctic precipitation from atmospheric methods. Journal of Climate 11 (1998) 334-367
27. Curry J.A., Schramm J.L., and Ebert E.E. Impact of clouds on the surface radiation balance of the Arctic Ocean. Meteorological and Atmospheric Physics 51 (1993) 197-217
28. Curry, J.A., Pinto, J.O., Mcinnes, K.L., 1995a. Modeling the summertime Arctic cloudy boundary layer. In: 5th Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program Science Team Meeting, San Diego, CA, pp. 63-67
29. Curry, J.A., Schramm, J.L., Ebert, E.E., 1995b. Sea ice-albedo climate feedback mechanism. Journal of Climate 8, 240-247
30. Curry J.A., et al. FIRE Arctic Clouds Experiment. Bulletin of the American Meteorology Society 81 (2000) 5-30
31. Curry J.A., Schramm J.L., Alam A., Reeder R., Arbetter T.E., and Guest P. Evaluation of data sets used to force sea ice models in the Arctic Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research 107 (2002) 10.1029/2000JC000466
32. DeFelice, T.P., 1998. An Introduction to Meteorological Instrumentation and Measurement. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. 229 pp
33. Dethleff D. Polynyas as a possible source for enigmatic Bennett Island atmospheric plumes. In: Johannessen O.M., Muench R.D., and Overland J.E. (Eds). Polar Oceans and their Role in Shaping the Global Environment (1994), American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC 475-483
34. Dickey W.W. A study of topographic effect on wind in the Arctic. Journal of Meteorology 18 (1961) 790-803
35. Dong X., and Mace G.G. Arctic stratus cloud properties and radiative forcing derived from ground-based data collected at Barrow, Alaska. Journal of Climate 16 (2003) 445-461
36. Eicken H., Grenfell T.C., Perovich D.K., Richter-Menge J.A., and Frey K. Hydraulic controls of summer Arctic pack ice albedo. Journal of Geophysical Research 109 (2004) 10.1029/2003JC001989
37. Fett R.W., Englebretson R.E., and Burk S.D. Techniques for analyzing lead conditions invisible, infrared, and microwave satellite imagery. Journal of Geophysical Research 102 (1997) 13657-13671
38. Francis J.A. Validation of reanalysis upper-level winds in the Arctic with independent rawinsonde data. Geophysical Research Letters 29 (2002) 10.1029/2001GL014578
39. Francis J.A., and Schweiger A.J. A new window opens on the Arctic. EOS, Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 81 (2000) 77-78
40. Garrett T.J., Radke L.F., and Hobbs P.V. Aerosol effects on cloud emissivity and surface longwave heating in the Arctic. Journal of Atmospheric Sciences 59 (2002) 769-778
41. Girard E., and Blanchet J.-P. Microphysical parameterization of Arctic diamond dust, ice fog, and thin stratus for climate models. Journal of Atmospheric Sciences 58 (2001) 1181-1198
42. Goosse H., and Fichefet T. Open-ocean convection and ice formation in a large-scale ice-ocean model. Tellus, Ser. A 53 (2001) 94-111
43. Gordienko P.A. Scientific Observations from, and the Nature of Drift of the "North Pole" Stations (1962), Arc. Antarctic Research Inst., Ministry of the Navy, USSR, Leningrad
44. Grebmeier J.M., Harvey R., and Smith S. The Western Arctic Shelf-Basin Interactions (SBI) project: an introduction. Deep-Sea Research II 52 (2005) 3109-3115
45. Häkkinen S., and Geiger C.A. Simulated low-frequency modes of circulation in the Arctic Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research 105 (2000) 6549-6564
46. Hall A. The role of surface albedo feedback in internal climate variability, transient climate change, and equilibrium climate sensitivity. Journal of Climate 17 (2004) 1550-1568
47. Hanafin J.A., and Minnett P.J. Cloud forcing of surface radiation in the North Water Polynya. Atmosphere-Ocean 39 (2001) 239-255
48. Hanesiak J.M., Barber D.G., De Abreu R.A., and Yackel J.J. Local and regional albedo observations of arctic first-year sea ice during melt ponding. Journal of Geophysical Research 106 (2001) 1005-1016
49. Hara K., et al. Mixing states of individual aerosol particles in spring Arctic troposphere during ASTAR 2000 campaign. Journal of Geophysical Research 108 (2003) 10.1029/2002JD002513
50. Heinemann G. The KABEG'97 Field Experiment: An Aircraft-Based Study of Katabatic Wind Dynamics over the Greenland Ice Sheet. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 93 (1999) 75-116
51. Herman G., and Goody R. Formation and persistence of summertime Arctic stratus clouds. Journal of Atmospheric Science 33 (1976) 1537-1553
52. Heygster G., et al. IOMASA-Integrated Observing and Modeling of the Arctic Surface and Atmosphere (2003). http://www.iup.physik.uni-bremen.de/iuppage/psa/2001/14iomasa.html
53. Hobbs P.V., and Rangno A.L. Microstructures of low and middle-level clouds over the Beaufort Sea. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 124 (1998) 2035-2071
54. Holland D.M. Transient sea-ice polynya forced by oceanic flow variability. Progress in Oceanography 48 (2001) 403-460
55. Ingram R.G., Bâcle J., Barber D.G., Gratton Y., and Melling H. An overview of physical processes in the North Water. Deep Sea Research II 49 (2002) 4893-4906
56. Inoue J., and Curry J.A. Application of aerosondes to high-resolution observations of sea surface temperature over Barrow Canyon. Geophysical Research Letters 31 (2004) L14312 10.1029/2004GL020336
57. Intrieri J.M., et al. An annual cycle of Arctic surface cloud forcing at SHEBA. Journal of Geophysical Research 107 (2002) 10.1029/2000JC000439
58. Jin X., Barber D.G., 2005. On the sensitivity of cloud related radiative processes on the initiation and rate of melt over snow-covered landfast sea ice. In: 8th Conference on Polar Meteorology and Oceanography, San Diego, CA
59. Key, E.L., 2004. Cloud radiative forcing in Arctic polynyas: climatology, parameterization and modeling, Ph.D., Univ. Miami, 164 pp
60. Key E.L., Minnett P.J., and Jones R.A. Cloud distributions over the coastal Arctic Ocean: surface-based and satellite observations. Atmospheric Research 72 (2004) 57-88
61. Key J. The Cloud and Surface Parameter Retrieval (CASPR) System for Polar AVHRR User's Guide (2002), Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies, University Wisconsin, Madison, WI 61 pp
62. Key J., and Haefliger M. Arctic ice surface temperature retrievals from AVHRR thermal channels. Journal of Geophysical Research 97 (1992) 5885-5893
63. Key J.R., and Schweiger A. Tools for atmospheric radiative transfer: Streamer and FluxNet. Computational Geosciences 24 (1998) 443-451
64. King J.C. Some measurements of turbulence over an Antarctic shelf. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 116 (1990) 379-400
65. King J.C., and Turner J. Antarctic Meteorology and Climatology (1997), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 409 pp
66. King J.C., and Anderson P.S. A humidity climatology for Halley, Antarctic, based on frost-point hygrometer measurements. Antarctic Science 11 (1999) 100-104
67. Kistler R., et al. The NCEP/NCAR 50-year reanalysis: monthly means CD-ROM and documentation. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 82 (2001) 247-267
68. König-Langlo G., King J.C., and Pettre P. Climatology of the three coastal Antarctic stations Dumont d'Urville, Neumayer, and Halley. Journal of Geophysical Research 103 (1998) 10935-10946
69. Kottmeier C., and Engelbart D. Generation and atmospheric heat exchange of coastal polynyas in the Weddell Sea. Boundary-layer Meteorology 60 (1992) 207-234
70. Kottmeier C., and Fay B. Trajectories in the Antarctic lower troposphere. Journal of Geophysical Research 103 (1998) 10947-10959
71. Kowalik Z., and Proshutinsky A.Y. The Arctic Ocean Tides. In: Johannessen O.M., Muench R.D., and Overland J.E. (Eds). The Polar Oceans and their Role in Shaping the Global Environment (1994), American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC 137-158
72. Kurtz D.D., and Bromwich D.H. Satellite observed behavior of the Terra Nova Bay Polynya. Journal of Geophysical Research 88 (1983) 9717-9722
73. Leck C., Tjernström M., Matrai P., Swietlicki E., and Bigg K. Can marine microorganisms influence melting of the Arctic pack ice?. EOS Transactions of the AGU 85 (2004) 25
74. Liu Y., and Key J.R. Detection and analysis of clear sky, low-level atmospheric temperature inversions with MODIS. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 20 (2003) 1727-1737
75. Lynch A.H., Gluek M.F., Chapman W.L., Bailey D.A., and Walsh J.E. Satellite observation and climate system model simulation of the St. Lawrence Island Polynya. Tellus, Ser. A 49 (1997) 277-297
76. Mailhot J., Tremblay A., Bélair S., Gultepe I., and Isaac G.A. Mesoscale simulation of surface fluxes and boundary layer clouds associated with a Beaufort Sea polynya. Journal of Geophysical Research 107 (2002) 10.1029/2000JC000429
77. Markus T., and Burns B.A. A method to estimate subpixel-scale coastal polynyas with satellite passive microwave data. Journal of Geophysical Research 100 (1995) 4473-4487
78. Marsden R.F., Serdula J., Key E.L., and Minnett P.J. Are polynyas self-sustaining?. Atmosphere-Ocean 42 (2004) 251-265
79. Martin S., Drucker R., and Yamashita K. The production of ice and dense shelf water in the Okhotsk Sea polynyas. Journal of Geophysical Research 103 (1998) 27771-27782 10.1029/98JC02242
80. Martin S., Polyakov I., Markus T., and Drucker R. Okhotsk Sea Kashevarov Bank polynya: its dependence on diurnal and fortnightly tides and its initial formation. Journal of Geophysical Research 109 (2004) 10.1029/2003JC002215
81. Martinson D.G., Killworth P.D., and Gordon A.L. A convective model for the Weddell Polynya. Journal of Physical Oceanography 11 (1981) 466-488
82. Massom R.A., Harris P.T., Michael K.J., and Potter M.J. The distribution and formative processes of latent-heat polynyas in East Antarctica. Annals of Glaciology 27 (1998) 420-426
83. May D.A., Parmeter M.M., Olszewski D.S., and Mckenzie B.D. Operational processing of satellite sea surface temperature retrievals at the Naval Oceanographic Office. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 79 (1998) 397-407
84. Maykut G.A. Energy exchange over young sea ice in the Central Arctic. Journal of Geophysical Research 83 (1978) 3646-3658
85. Miloshevich L.M., Vömel H., Paukkunen A., Heymsfield A.J., and Oltmans S.J. Characterization and correction of relative humidity measurements from Vaisala RS80-A radiosondes at cold temperatures. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 18 (2001) 135-156
86. Miloshevich L.M., Paukkunen A., Vömel H., and Oltmans S.J. Development and validation of a time-lag correction for Vaisala radiosonde humidity measurements. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 21 (2004) 1305-1327
87. Minnett P.J. Measurements of the summer surface heat budget of the Northeast Water Polynya in 1992. Journal of Geophysical Research 100 (1995) 4309-4322
88. Minnett P.J. The influence of solar zenith angle and cloud type on cloud radiative forcing at the surface in the Arctic. Journal of Climate 12 (1999) 147-158
89. Minnett P.J., et al. A summary of the formation and seasonal progression of the Northeast Water Polynya. Journal of Marine Systems 10 (1997) 79-85
90. Monaghan A.J., Bromwich D.H., Powers J.G., and Manning K.W. A climatology of the McMurdo, Antarctic region based on the AMPS archive. Journal of Climate 18 (2005) 1174-1189
91. Moore G.W.K., Alverson K., and Renfrew I.A. A reconstruction of the air-sea interaction associated with the Weddell Polynya. Journal of Physical Oceanography 32 (2002) 1685-1698
92. Nunes Vaz R.A., and Lennon G.W. Physical oceanography of the Prydz Bay region of Antarctic waters. Deep Sea Research I 43 (1996) 603-641
93. Overland J.E., Adams J.M., and Bond N.A. Regional variation of winter temperatures in the Arctic. Journal of Climate 10 (1997) 821-837
94. Overland J.E., Wang M., and Bond N.A. Recent temperature changes in the western Arctic during spring. Journal of Climate 15 (2002) 1702-1716
95. Parish T.R., and Bromwich D.H. Instrumented aircraft observations of the katabatic wind regime near Terra Nova Bay. Monthly Weather Review 117 (1989) 1570-1585
96. Payne R. Albedo of the sea surface. Journal of Atmospheric Sciences 29 (1972) 959-970
97. Pease C.H. The size of wind-driven coastal polynyas. Journal of Geophysical Research 92 (1987) 7049-7059
98. Perovich D.K., Grenfell T.C., Light B., and Hobbs P.V. Seasonal evolution of the albedo of multiyear Arctic sea ice. Journal of Geophysical Research 107 (2002) 10.1029/2000JC000438
99. Perovich D.K., Tucker W.B., and Ligett K.A. Aerial observations of the evolution of ice surface conditions during summer. Journal of Geophysical Research 107 (2002) 10.1029/2000JC000449
100. Pinto J.O., and Curry J.A. Atmospheric convective plumes emanating from leads 2. Microphysical and radiative processes. Journal of Geophysical Research 100 (1995) 4633-4642
101. Pinto J.O., Curry J.A., and Lynch A.H. Modeling clouds and radiation for the November 1997 period of SHEBA using a column climate model. Journal of Geophysical Research 104 (1999) 6661-6678
102. Pinto J.O., Alam A., Maslanik J.A., Curry J.A., and Stone R.S. Surface characteristics and atmospheric footprint of springtime Arctic leads at SHEBA. Journal of Geophysical Research 108 (2003) 10.1029/2000JC000473
103. Popov, A.V., 2001. The Laptev Sea flaw lead polynyas in the climate system. In: International Polynya Symposium, Quebec City, Canada
104. Ramanathan V., et al. Cloud radiative forcing and climate: results from the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment. Science 243 (1989) 57-63
105. Renfrew I.A., King J.C., and Markus T. Coastal polynyas in the southern Weddell Sea: variability of the surface energy budget. Journal of Geophysical Research 107 (2002) 10.1029/2000JC000720
106. Roberts A., Allison I., and Lytle V. Sensible- and latent-heat-flux estimates over the Mertz Glacier polynya, East Antarctica, from in-flight measurements. Annals of Glaciology 33 (2001) 377-384
107. Rogers A.N., Bromwich D.H., Sinclair E.N., and Cullather R.I. The atmospheric hydrologic cycle over the Arctic basin from reanalyses. Part II: Interannual variability. Journal of Climate 14 (2001) 2414-2429
108. Rouse W. Examples of enhanced global solar radiation through multiple reflection from an ice-covered Arctic sea. Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology 26 (1987) 670-674
109. Schiffer R.A., and Rossow W.B. The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP): The first project of the World Climate Research Programme. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 64 (1983) 779-784
110. Schneider W., and Budéus G. On the generation of the Northeast Water Polynya. Journal of Geophysical Research 100 (1995) 4269-4286
111. Schweiger A.J., and Key J.R. Arctic Ocean Radiative Fluxes and Cloud Forcing Estimated from the ISCCP C2 Cloud Dataset, 1983-1990. Journal of Applied Meteorology 33 (1994) 948-963
112. Schweiger A.J., Lindsey R.W., Key J.R., and Francis J.A. Arctic clouds in mulityear satellite data sets. Geophysical Research Letters 26 (1999) 1845-1848
113. Serreze M.C., Kahl J.D., and Schnell R.C. Low-level temperature inversions of the Eurasian Arctic and comparisons with Soviet drifting station data. Journal of Climate 5 (1992) 615-629
114. Shaw G.E. Evidence for central Eurasian source area of Arctic haze in Alaska. Nature 299 (1982) 815-818
115. Shaw G.E., and Khalil M.A.K. Arctic Haze. Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, vol. 4, Part B (1989), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany 70-110
116. Shine K.P., and Crane R.G. The sensitivity of a one dimensional thermodynamic sea ice model to changes in cloudiness. Journal of Geophysical Research 89 (1984) 10615-10622
117. Shupe M.D., and Intrieri J.M. Cloud radiative forcing of the Arctic surface: the influence of cloud properties, surface albedo, and solar zenith angle. Journal of Climate 17 (2004) 616-628
118. Smith, M., Rigby, B., 1981. Distribution of polynyas in the Canadian Arctic. In: Stirling, I., Cleator, H. (Eds.), Polynyas in the Canadian Arctic, pp. 7-28. Canadian Wildlife Service Occasional Paper 45, Ottawa, CA
119. Smith S.D., Muench R.D., and Pease C.H. Polynyas and leads: an overview of physical processes and environment. Journal of Geophysical Research 95 (1990) 9461-9479
120. Spangenberg, D.A., Trepte, Q., Sun-Mack, S., Minnis, P., Uttal, T., 2004. Daytime cloud property retrievals over the Arctic from multispectral MODIS data. 13th Conference on Satellite Meteorology and Oceanography, Norfolk, VA
121. Stamnes K.R.G.E., Curry J.A., Walsh J.E., and Zak B.D. Review of science issues, deployment strategy, and status for the ARM North Slope of Alaska-adjacent Arctic Ocean climate research site. Journal of Climate 12 (1999) 46-63
122. Steffen K. Warm water cells in the North Water. Journal of Geophysical Research 90 (1985) 9129-9136
123. Stokes G.M., and Schwartz S.E. The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) program: programmatic background and design of the cloud and radiation test bed. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 75 (1994) 1201-1221
124. Stone R.S. Variations in western Arctic temperatures in response to cloud radiative and synoptic-scale influences. Journal of Geophysical Research 102 (1997) 21769-21776
125. Tobin D.C., et al. Downwelling spectral radiance observations at the SHEBA ice station: Water vapor continuum measurements from 17 to 26 μm. Journal of Geophysical Research 104 (1999) 2081-2092
126. Tsay S., Stamnes K., and Jayaweera K. Radiative energy budget in the cloudy and hazy Arctic. Journal of Atmospheric Sciences 46 (1989) 1002-1018
127. Valeur, H., 1994. Personal communication
128. Vincent R.F., and Marsden R.F. An analysis of the dissolution of ice in Nares Strait using AVHRR Imagery. Atmosphere-Ocean 393 (2001) 209-222
129. Vogelmann A.M., Flatau P.J., Szczodrak M., Markowicz K., and Minnett P.J. Observations of large aerosol infrared forcing at the surface. Geophysical Research Letters 30 (2003) 1655 10.1029/2002GL016829
130. Wagenbach D., et al. Sea-salt aerosol in coastal Antarctic regions. Journal of Geophysical Research 103 (1998) 10961-10974
131. Walsh J.E., and Chapman W.L. Arctic cloud-radiation-temperature associations in observational data and atmospheric reanalyses. Journal of Climate 11 (1998) 3030-3045
132. Walter B.A. A study of the planetary boundary layer over the polynya downwind of St. Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea using aircraft data. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 48 (1989) 255-282
133. Willmott A.J., Morales Maqueda M.A., and Darby M.S. A model for the influence of wind and oceanic currents on the size of a steady-state latent heat coastal polynya. Journal of Physical Oceanography 27 (1997) 2256-2275
134. Witte, H.J., 1968. Airborne observations of cloud particles and infrared flux density in the Arctic, Ph.D. Dissert., Univ. Washington, 101 pp
135. Wolff E.W., and Cachier H. Concentrations and seasonal cycle of black carbon in aerosol at a coastal Antarctic station. Journal of Geophysical Research 103 (1998) 11033-11041
136. Worby A.P., and Allison I. Ocean-atmosphere energy exchange over thin variable concentration Antarctic pack ice. Annals of Glaciology 15 (1991) 184-190
137. Xie Y., Hopke P.K., Paatero P., Barrie L.A., and Li S. Identification of source nature and seasonal variations of Arctic aerosol by positive matrix factorization. Journal of Atmospheric Sciences 56 (1999) 249-260
138. Zulauf M.A., and Krueger S.K. Two-dimensional numerical simulations of Arctic leads: Plume penetration height. Journal of Geophysical Research 108 (2003) 10.1029/2000JC000495