Taking games seriously

Technology and Culture

Volumn 49, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 347-375

  Light, Jennifer ^a  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 44349105929     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/tech.0.0007     Document Type: Review

References (212)

1. Reinhold Martin, The Organizational Complex: Architecture, Media, and Corporate Space (Cambridge, Mass., 2003);
2. John Rudolph, "From World War to Woods Hole: The Use of Wartime Research Models for Curriculum Reform," Teachers College Record 104, no. 2 (2002): 212-41;
3. Christopher Simpson, The Science of Coercion (Oxford, 1994);
4. Donna Haraway, "Signs of Dominance: From a Physiology to a Cybernetics of a Primate Society," Studies in the History of Biology 6 (1983): 129-219;
5. Donna Haraway, "The High Cost of Information in Post-World War II Evolutionary Biology: Ergonomics, Semiotics, and the Sociobiology of Communication Systems," Philosophical Forum 13, nos. 2/3 (1981/1982): 244-78;
6. Lily E. Kay, "Cybernetics, Information, Life: The Emergence of Scriptural Representations of Heredity," Configurations 5 (1997): 23-97;
7. Philip Mirowski, Machine Dreams: How Economics Became a Cyborg Science (Cambridge, 2002);
8. Peter Galison, "Computer Simulation and the Trading Zone," in The Disunity of Science: Boundaries, Contexts, and Power, ed. Peter Galison and David Stump (Stanford, Calif., 1996);
9. Agatha Hughes and Thomas Hughes, eds., Systems, Experts, and Computers: The Systems Approach in Management and Engineering, World War II and After (Cambridge, Mass., 2000);
10. Peter J. Taylor, "Technocratic Optimism, H. T. Odum, and the Partial Transformation of Ecological Metaphor after World War II," Journal of the History of Biology 21 (1988): 213-44;
11. David Jardini, "Out of the Blue Yonder: The RAND Corporation's Diversification into Social Welfare Research, 1946-1968" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 1996);
12. Geir Kirkebøen, "From a Naked Emperor to Just Clothes: The Rise and Fall of Cybernetic Family Therapy," Social Science Information 34, no. 1 (1995): 31-65;
13. Jennifer Light, From Warfare to Welfare: Defense Intellectuals and Urban Problems in Cold War America (Baltimore, 2003);
14. Paul Edwards, The Closed World (Cambridge, Mass., 1996);
15. Steven Heims, The Cybernetics Group, 1946-1953: Constructing a Social Science for Postwar America (Cambridge, Mass., 1991);
16. Thomas Haigh, "Inventing Information Systems: The Systems Men and the Computer, 1950-1968," Business History Review 75 (2001): 15-61;
17. N. Katherine Hayles, How We Became Posthuman (Chicago, 1999).
18. Michael Latham, Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and "Nation Building" in the Kennedy Era (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2000);
19. Light; Edwards; Jardini; Alice O'Connor, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century U.S. History (Princeton, N.J., 2002).
20. Robert Wood, "To Government Science: The Good Urban Witch," in Cybernetics and the Management of Large-Scale Systems: Proceedings of the Second Annual Symposium of the American Society for Cybernetics, ed. Edmond Dewan (New York, 1969), 129.
21. Ibid., 123.
22. There was to be one year of planning (planning year) followed by five years of implementation (action years) in which planning would play a continuing role. Large cities including New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadelphia, and San Francisco would be able to secure sponsorship for more than one neighborhood.
23. Model Cities was merely one example of the excitement about systems thinking at the newly created cabinet-level agency, where both secretary Robert Weaver and undersecretary Robert Wood sought closer relations with the community of systems scientists and engineers. See Robert Weaver, "Civic Invention and Urban Change," address at George Washington University, 12 January 1965, reprinted in George Washington University, Man and Metro: Report of Lecture Series on Urban and Regional Development (Washington, D.C., 1965);
24. Robert C. Weaver, The Urban Complex: Human Values in Urban Life (Garden City, N.Y., 1964);
25. Volta Torrey, Science and the City (Washington, D.C., 1967);
26. and Wood, "To Government Science."
27. Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, N.J., 2000).
28. Leland M. Swanson and Glenn O. Johnson, The Cybernetic Approach to Urban Analysis (Los Angeles, 1964);
29. Bernard J. Frieden and Marshall Kaplan, The Politics of Neglect: Urban Aid from Model Cities to Revenue Sharing (Cambridge, Mass., 1975), 28.
30. Britton Harris, cited in Royston Landau, "Complexity and Complexing," Architectural Design 42, no. 10 (1972): 610.
31. See also Harvey S. Perloff, David M. Vetter, and Thomas Berg, Lessons from Urban Renewal (for NTITS): A Review of the Literature (Los Angeles, 1972),
32. and Dilip R. Limaye and Donald F. Blumberg, "Systems for Urban Planning and Management," in Urban Simulation: Models for Public Policy Analysis, ed. Marshall Whithed and Robert Sarly (Leiden, 1974).
33. Wood, "To Government Science" (n. 3 above). This was despite the fact that, as David Jardini recounts, Community Action represented one of the earliest efforts to apply systems analysis to a domestic program; see Jardini (n. 1 above).
34. Robert Kevin Brown, "City Cybernetics," Land Economics 45, no. 4 (1969): 407.
35. Primary and secondary accounts are in unanimous agreement that Model Cities was a highly academic program. See Frieden and Kaplan; Edward Banfield, "Making a New Federal Program: Model Cities, 1964-68," in Politics and Policy in America: Six Case Studies, ed. Allen P. Sindler (Boston, 1973).
36. Some of the key program designers included MIT political scientist Robert Wood, Harvard law professor Charles Haar, and University of Pennsylvania city and regional planner Chester Rapkin. See Robert C. Wood, "Response to the Urban Challenge," address to the U.S. Savings and Loan League, Washington, D.C. (5 February 1968), 4, in Harvard Graduate School of Design Vertical Files Collections (hereafter VF) NAC 1590 W 1968;
37. Charles M. Haar, Between the Idea and the Reality: A Study in the Origin, Fate, and Legacy of the Model Cities Program (Boston, 1975);
38. Robert C. Wood and Hans B. C. Spiegel, "Chester Rapkin: Planner, Teacher, Scholar," Journal of the American Planning Association 54 (1988): 421-24.
39. Brown, 407. Reflecting their belief in universal principles of system structure, many of the era's scientists and engineers speculated on the relevance of their work to understanding and managing cities. Examples of this literature include C. H. Waddington, "Progressive Self-Stabilizing Systems in Biology and Social Affairs," Ekistics 22, no. 133 (1966): 402-5;
40. Anthony Catanese and Alan Steiss, "Systemic Planning for Very Complex Systems, with a Commentary by J. Brian McLoughlin," Planning Outlook 5 (1968): 7-27;
41. Emanuel Savas, "Cybernetics in City Hall," Science 168 (29 May 1970): 1066-71;
42. Magoroh Maruyama, "Human Futuristics and Urban Planning," Journal of the American Institute of Planners 39, no. 5 (1973): 346-58;
43. and contributions from Howard Odum, Stafford Beer, and Gordon Pask in a special issue of Architectural Design 42, no. 10 (1972).
44. Chris Abel, "Urban Chaos or Self-Organization," Architectural Design 39 (September 1969): 502.
45. Analysts who adopted a systems approach to understanding the impact of increased political participation among racial minorities did not all agree about whether or not such communications would create or undermine homeostasis in the city system. Compare, for example, the work of James Laue on the Black Muslim movement with Abram Kardiner's comments on the "American Negro Revolution": James H. Laue, "A Contemporary Revitalization Movement in American Race Relations: The 'Black Muslims,'" Social Forces 42, no. 3 (1964): 316;
46. and Abram Kardiner, "Models for the Study of Collapse of Social Homeostasis in a Society," in The Study of Total Societies: Papers Originally Presented at a Conference Held in Washington, July 28 and 29, 1965, under the Auspices of the Bureau of Social Science Research, and Sponsored by the Army Research Office of the Dept. of the Army through the Special Operations Research Office of American University, ed. Samuel Klausner (New York, 1967), 177, 178, 186, 188.
47. See also Joseph Firestone, "Underlying Causes of Urban Riots," General Systems 19 (1974): 117-33.
48. Frieden and Kaplan (n. 8 above). The notion that cities could be optimized was widely discussed during this period. See Britton Harris, "The City of the Future: The Problem of Optimal Design," Papers and Proceedings of the Regional Science Association 19 (1967): 185-95;
49. and Werner Z. Hirsch and Percival Goodman, "Is There an Optimum Size for a City?" in Readings in Urban Economics, ed. Matthew Edel and Jerome Rothenberg (New York, 1972).
50. H. Ralph Taylor, "The Educational Dimensions of the Model Cities Program," address at the Center for Continuing Education, University of Chicago, 19 May 1967, 11, VF NAC 1430 US. This approach was a direct response to the shortcomings of urban renewal in which powerful urban actors had used quantitative rankings toward political ends.
51. While the notion that citizen groups and community activists might find appeal in systems approaches was not without precedent, it was recognized that this was not an intuitive understanding of cities and city problems; see Light (n. 1 above).
52. Haar (n. 11 above), 181.
53. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Office of the City Manager, Application to the Department of Housing and Urban Development for a Grant to Plan a Comprehensive City Demonstration Program (Cambridge, Mass., 1967);
54. Berkeley, California, Model Cities Program Planning Grant Application (Berkeley, Calif., 1968);
55. Marshall Kaplan, Gans, and Kahn, The Model Cities Program: A History and Analysis of the Planning Process in Three Cities - Atlanta, Georgia; Seattle, Washington; Dayton, Ohio (Washington, D.C., 1969).
56. Later, cities such as Los Angeles, whose initial applications failed to make the cut, followed suit, calling on local aerospace experts; see Los Angeles, Office of the Mayor, Application to the Department of Housing and Urban Development for a Grant to Plan a Comprehensive Model Cities Program (Lincoln Heights Model Neighborhood) (Los Angeles, 1968).
57. "Urban Crisis: Are Model Cities the Business of Business?" Nations Business (February 1969): 43.
58. Wood, "To Government Science" (n. 3 above), 125. That citizen participation re-mained inadequately defined was a charge repeated throughout the early years of the program; see Frieden and Kaplan (n. 8 above).
59. POGE was an acronym for Planning Operational Gaming Experiment; see Francis H. Hendricks, Planning Operational Gaming Experiment: P.O.G.E. (Pittsburgh, 1960).
60. On the early history of simulation games, see John Raser, Simulation and Society (Boston, 1967),
61. and Sharon Ghamari-Tabrizi, "Simulating the Unthinkable: Gaming Future War in the 1950s and 1960s," Social Studies of Science 30, no. 2 (2000): 163-223.
62. CLUG stood for Cornell Land Use Game, and later, Community Land Use Game. METROPOLIS was not an acronym. Richard Duke, METROPOLIS (East Lansing, Mich., 1964);
63. Richard D. Duke and Allen H. Schmidt, Operational Gaming and Simulation in Urban Research: An Annotated Bibliography (East Lansing, Mich., 1965);
64. Allan Feldt, The Cornell Land Use Game (Ithaca, N.Y., 1965);
65. and Allan G. Feldt, "Operational Gaming in Planning Education," Journal of the American Institute of Planners 32, no. 1 (1966): 17-23. The capital letters in the game titles reflected the military context of much early game development.
66. Cathy Greenblat, "Gaming and Gaming-Simulation: An Overview for Teachers, Trainers, and Community Workers," in Whithed and Sarly (n. 9 above), 404. On the discussion about technologies for urban representation, see John Dyckman, "The Technological Obsolescence of Planning Practice," Journal of the American Institute of Planners 27, no. 3 (1961): 242-45;
67. Journal of the American Institute of Planners special issues 26, no. 4 (1960) and 31, no. 4 (1965) (on new tools for planning);
68. Richard Meier, "Simulations for Urban Planning," Ekistics 20, no. 118 (September 1965): 144;
69. and Edgar Hoover, "The Evolving Form and Organization of the Metropolis," in Issues in Urban Economics, ed. Harvey Perloff and Lowdon Wingo Jr. (Baltimore, 1968), 237.
70. One comparison between a city and a checkerboard is in Jesse Frederick Steiner, Community Organization: A Study of Its Theory and Current Practice (New York, 1925).
71. Instructors using games to teach systems approaches to thinking about cities during the 1960s and 1970s included Sarane Boocock (University of Southern California), Dennis Little and Raul de Brigand (Wesleyan), Robert Montgomery (University of California, Berkeley), Richard Meier (University of Michigan), and Clark Abt (Harvard), to name a few. See Mark Nagelberg and Dennis Little, "Compiled Bibliography: Selected Urban Simulations and Games," Simulation and Games (December 1970): 459-81;
72. Louis K. Lowenstein, Annotated Bibliography on Urban Games (Monticello, 1971);
73. L. H. Summers, E. H. Seely, and P. G. Hamon, "Operational Gaming and Urban Analysis," Engineering Education 62, no. 1 (1971): 54;
74. Juan Pablo Bonta, "Simulation Games in Architectural Education," Journal of Architectural Education 33, no. 1 (1979): 12-18; Clark Abt, interview with author, Cambridge, Massachusetts, August 2005; Richard Meier, interview with author, Berkeley, California, April 2005; Richard Duke, interview with author, Ann Arbor, Michigan, July 2005.
75. E. P. Berkeley, "The New Gamesmanship: A Report on the New Urban Games," Architectural Forum 129, no. 5 (1968): 58-63.
76. Ibid., 61; and A. Donald Bourgeois, "Planning for the Model City in St. Louis," in Education and Urban Renaissance, ed. Roald Campbell, Lucy Marx, and Raphael Nystrand (New York, 1969), 117. An indoor variant is also described.
77. Bourgeois, 117.
78. Berkeley, 61.
79. Bourgeois, 117.
80. Richard Duke, Gaming-Simulation in Urban Research (East Lansing, Mich., 1964), 40.
81. Both quotations from Bourgeois, 117.
82. Berkeley (n. 26 above), 59.
83. U.S. President's Task Force on Model Cities, Model Cities: A Step towards the New Federalism (Washington, D.C., 1970).
84. This enduring enthusiasm is apparent in HUD's continued sponsorship for systems consultants to Model Cities and other programs. MIT Urban Systems Laboratory, Model Cities Project-Appendix-C (Cambridge, 1969);
85. MIT Urban Systems Laboratory, Directory of Urban and Urban Related Research Projects at MIT, Edition III (Cambridge, 1970);
86. Volt Information Sciences, Model Cities Development Project, Final Report: Process, Evaluation, and Recommendations (Rockville, Md., 1972);
87. John Herbers, "Federal Plan Would Put Unemployed Scientists to Work on Urban Problems," New York Times, 13 December 1970, 83; letter to Erwin France (administrative assistant to Chicago's mayor and director of National Model Cities Directors Association) from Floyd Hyde (assistant secretary, HUD), 17 December 1970, Aerospace Executives Project 10/7/1970-5/15/1972 folder, Mayor Yorty Papers, box D-00015, Los Angeles City Archives.
88. Public Administration Review 35, no. 3 (1972), special issue on Community Action and Model Cities;
89. Erwin Piper, Management Audit Report of City Demonstration Agency (Los Angeles, 1972).
90. George J. Fuka, Education for Participants in the Planning-Action Process: Lessons from Model Cities Experiences - a Conference Report (Portland, 1969), 11.
91. The use of games such as Prisoner's Dilemma proved so popular that the field's leading academic journal (Journal of Conflict Resolution) declared a moratorium on papers about games. See Norman Alexander Jr. and Harrison G. Weil, "Players, Persons, and Purposes: Situational Meaning and the Prisoner's Dilemma Game," Sociometry 32, no. 2 (1969): 121 n1.
92. This was RFP H-42-70, "Request for a Study and Provision of Technical Assistance through Simulation for More Effective Citizen Participation in the Model Cities Program."
93. Light (n. 1 above); Abt Associates, The URB-COIN Game (Cambridge, Mass., 1966);
94. Abt Associates, The AGILE-COIN Game (Cambridge, Mass., 1966);
95. Abt Associates, SIMPOLIS (Cambridge, Mass., 1967).
96. Abt had also undertaken some community development work in a contract with the College of the Virgin Islands; a VIRGIN ISLAND GAME was created "to clarify some of the internal communication patterns amongst government and the community in a developing nation." See John Taylor, Instructional Planning Systems: A Gaming-Simulation Approach to Urban Problems (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), 157.
97. CONSAD's work in both areas is described in Light.
98. Loel Callahan et al., Ghetto: The Urban Race Game (Chicago, 1970);
99. Loel Callahan et al., Urban Dynamics: An Urbandyne Simulation Game (Chicago, 1970);
100. Loel Callahan et al., Edge City College: An Urbandyne Simulation Game (Chicago, 1970);
101. Loel Callahan et al., The Youth Culture Game: An Urbandyne Simulation (Chicago, 1971).
102. On the uses of Ghetto and Urban Dynamics for community development, see Larry McClellan, "Gaming and Community Development: Experiences with Urban Dynamics," in Recent Developments in Urban Gaming, ed. Philip Patterson (La Jolla, Calif., 1972). Note that Urban Dynamics had a Model Cities permutation.
103. Allan W. Cameron, "Fair City: The Rise and Demise of a Citizen Participation Game for Model Cities," in An Environmental Laboratory for the Social Sciences, ed. Peter House and Philip Patterson (Washington, D.C., 1972), 40;
104. CONSAD Research Corporation, Old Town, a Simulation about Model Cities: Operator's Manual (Pittsburgh, 1970);
105. CONSAD Research Corporation, Old Town, a Simulation about Model Cities: Rules (Pittsburgh, 1970);
106. Allan Cameron, A Study and Provision of Technical Assistance through Simulation for More Effective Citizen Participation in the Model Cities Program: Report on Tasks I and II, Game Development (Cambridge, Mass., 1970). Note that the Our Town game originally was titled Old Town, after the Chicago neighborhood that had been a focus of Urbandyne's Ghetto and Urban Dynamics games.
107. Old Town, a Simulation about Model Cities: Operator's Manual, 3.
108. Lawrence Lerer, "Our Town: A Model Cities Simulation," in Patterson, Recent Developments in Urban Gaming, 51.
109. Old Town, a Simulation about Model Cities: Rules (n. 43 above).
110. Lerer, 52.
111. Old Town, a Simulation about Model Cities: Operator's Manual (n. 43 above).
112. Lerer, 52.
113. Old Town, a Simulation about Model Cities: Rules, 22.
114. Old Town, a Simulation about Model Cities: Operator's Manual, 22.
115. Dove Toll, GHETTO (New York, 1969);
116. Robert Sommer and Judy Tart, Blacks and Whites (Clinton, 1970);
117. Richard Meier and Kevin Langdon, EL BARRIO (Berkeley, Calif., 1974);
118. Karl Deutsch, "On Social Communication and the Metropolis," in The Future Metropolis, ed. Lloyd Rodwin (New York, 1961), 129. The naming was particularly noteworthy in the case of Our Town - a modification of a game created by Urbandyne and originally titled Ghetto.
119. Harold Rose, "The Development of an Urban Subsystem: The Case of the Negro Ghetto," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 60, no. 1 (1970): 1-5.
120. Jay Forrester, "Control of Urban Growth," keynote presentation to the American Public Works Association, 17-18, Jay W. Forrester Papers, box 1, American Public Works Association folder, MIT archives and special collections; Jay Forrester, Urban Dynamics (Cambridge, Mass., 1969). Forrester's MIT research group won a contract to assist the Model Cities program in Lowell, Massachusetts. Archival records reveal his informal assistance to other Model Cities, for example, in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania; see his letter to Henry Ostrowski, director of research and evaluation, City Demonstration Agency of the City of Wilkes-Barre, from Jay W. Forrester, 8 March 1973, in Jay W. Forrester Papers, box 1, "Pennsylvania (States)" folder, MIT archives and special collections.
121. McClellan, "Gaming and Community Development" (n. 42 above), 17;
122. Larry McClellan, interview with author, Chicago, March 2004; Lerer (n. 45 above), 49;
123. Cameron, A Study and Provision of Technical Assistance (n. 43 above), 48.
124. Sarane Boocock, "Validity-Testing of an Intergenerational Relations Game," Simulation and Games (1972): 29-40.
125. The issue of validation was a priority in early discussions about many operational games; see, for example, Charles Hermann, "Validation Problems in Games and Simulations with Special Reference to Models of International Politics," Behavioral Science 12, no. 3 (1967): 216-31, and Raser (n. 22 above).
126. Old Town, a Simulation about Model Cities: Operator's Manual, 15.
127. Cameron, A Study and Provision of Technical Assistance, 34. In Fair City, to facilitate a positive outcome for the Model Neighborhood residents council, "actors with greater power and resources" - for example, the city government team and individual city councilors - "were given goals more difficult to implement," such as getting reelected; see Cameron, "Fair City" (n. 43 above), 44. There were other distortions - for example, in local elections where the Model Neighborhood residents council often represented a swing vote.
128. John Hall Fish, Black Power/White Control: The Struggle of the Woodlawn Organization in Chicago (Princeton, N.J., 1973); Haar (n. 11 above); Frieden and Kaplan (n. 8 above).
129. CONSULTEC, Prototype Information Procedures for City Demonstration Agencies: A Systems Approach to Urban Development (n.p., 1969).
130. Cameron, "Fair City," 42.
131. Ibid., 44.
132. In 1967, systems consultants from Arthur D. Little had emphasized to the Johnson administration the need for communities to realize short-term results; see Arthur D. Little, Inc., Strategies for Shaping Model Cities (Cambridge, Mass., 1967).
133. Duke, Gaming-Simulation in Urban Research (n. 31 above), 19;
134. Robert Edwards and Dorothy Francis, "Intercity Competition: The Community Growth Game," General Systems 8 ( 1963): 203.
135. Edwards and Francis modeled their game after Harold Guetzkow's Inter-Nation Simulation (an early ARPA-sponsored international relations game). This was consistent with efforts by a number of scholars to apply international diplomatic models to understand urban and interurban politics - for example, by Matthew Holden Jr., "The Governance of the Metropolis as a Problem in Diplomacy," Journal of Politics 26, no. 3 (1964): 627-47.
136. The genealogy of urban games is described in Nagelberg and Little (n. 25 above), 459-81, and in Luis H. Summers, "Operational Games in Architecture and Design," Journal of Architectural Education 33, no. 1 (1979): 2-7.
137. On the flexibility of the systems approach applied to urban contexts, see Alan Wilson, "Models in Urban Planning: A Synoptic Review of Recent Literature," Urban Studies 5, no. 3 ( 1968): 249-76.
138. Old Town, a Simulation about Model Cities: Operator's Manual, 2.
139. Cameron, "Fair City" (n. 43 above), 41.
140. Callahan et al., Urban Dynamics (n. 42 above);
141. Thomas Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, N.J., 1996). Model Cities had to improve upon extant neighborhoods rather than build new model communities, but HUD sought a break with the past where possible, for example, in its insistence that a new agency in each city - the City Demonstration Agency - administer the Model Cities program, instead of vesting responsibility in any existing unit of local government.
142. Weaver, The Urban Complex (n. 6 above), 152.
143. Light (n. 1 above); Robert Yin, Some Remarks on Evaluating Administrative Decentralization (Santa Monica, Calif., 1972);
144. Robert Yin and William Lucas, Decentralization and Alienation (Santa Monica, Calif., 1973).
145. Model Cities encouraged "responsiveness" in local program development by re-quiring that cities adopt a continuous approach to planning and evaluation that would alter the balance of funding to operating agencies as well as the structure of both City Demonstration agencies and Citizen Participation organizations; see Taylor, "Educational Dimensions" (n. 16 above). This outcome fits the historiography of systems analysis, which emphasizes how these analytic tools centralized power for key decision makers in the military, business, and politics. See Robert Boguslaw, The New Utopians: A Study of System Design and Social Change (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1965);
146. Ida Hoos, Systems Analysis in Public Policy: A Critique (Berkeley, Calif., 1972);
147. Martin Kuenzlen, Playing Urban Games: The Systems Approach to Planning (Boston, 1972);
148. Garry Brewer, Politicians, Bureaucrats, and the Consultant (New York, 1973).
149. Fair City was played in Rock Hill, South Carolina; Manchester, New Hampshire; New London, Connecticut; Holyoke, Massachusetts; and Tampa, Florida; Our Town was played in Philadelphia; Austin, Texas; Benton Harbor, Michigan; Chicago; and St. Louis - to name a few examples. Disappointments with other system-oriented programs are detailed in Jardini (n. 1 above); Edwards (n. 1 above); Haigh (n. 1 above); and Light.
150. Frieden and Kaplan (n. 8 above), 162. For a more general discussion of experts' loss of authority, see also Brian Balogh, Chain Reaction: Expert Debate and Public Participation in American Commercial Nuclear Power, 1945-1975 (Cambridge, Mass., 1991).
151. Cameron, A Study and Provision of Technical Assistance (n. 43 above), 24.
152. Abt, interview (n. 25 above); McClellan, interview (n. 55 above). Abt continued its work with urban gaming, and the U.S. Department of Labor later invited some of the company's Fair City developers to create games for use in connection with the agency's Job Corps program; see Clark Abt, Raid (Cambridge, Mass., 1970),
153. Judith Platt, NEIGHBORHOOD (Cambridge, Mass., 1973),
154. and Raymond A Glazier and Peter Finn, Selection, Field Testing, and Evaluation of Educational Games in Job Corps Centers (Cambridge, Mass., 1973).
155. For some examples of systematic assessments of the extent to which games such as METROPOLIS, CLUG, and GHETTO helped players learn specific lessons, see Duke, Gaming-Simulation in Urban Research (n. 31 above);
156. Margaret Warne Monroe, Games as Teaching Tools: An Examination of the Community Land Use Game (Ithaca, N.Y., 1968);
157. and Samuel A. Livingston, Simulation Games and Attitudes toward the Poor: Three Questionnaire Studies (Baltimore, 1971).
158. Cameron, A Study and Provision of Technical Assistance, 37-39.
159. Lerer (n. 45 above), 54.
160. Abt, interview; McClellan, interview.
161. Cameron, "Fair City" (n. 43 above), 45.
162. Berkeley (n. 26 above), 58.
163. Lerer, 53. Other similarly positive outcomes for improved citizen-government collaborations - for example, in Benton Harbor, Michigan, and Edinburgh, Texas (where staff adapted the game to the local situation) - are described in Lerer's report.
164. Toll (n. 52 above); James Coleman et al., "The Hopkins Games Program: Conclusions from Seven Years of Research," Educational Researcher 2, no. 8 (1973): 3-7;
165. Sarane Boocock, "Johns Hopkins Games Program," Simulation & Gaming 25, no. 2 (1994): 172-78.
166. L. Warren Nelson, "Simulation Review," Simulation and Games (1970): 342.
167. Hayden Barkley May, "The Potentiality of Gaming-Simulation in Architecture," Journal of Architectural Education 33, no. 1 (1979): 8. May was a former student of CLUG developer Allan Feldt.
168. Frieden and Kaplan (n. 8 above); Haar (n. 11 above).
169. The kinds of federal and local obstacles that city governments encountered are detailed in formal evaluations of efforts to introduce information systems into City Demonstration Agencies. See Booz, Allen, & Hamilton, Final Report on the Installation of the City Demonstration Agency Information System in Nine Region II Second-Round Model Cities (Washington, D.C, 1971);
170. CONSULTEC, Inc., Final Report of City Demonstration Agency Information System Installation Efforts in Twelve First Round Model Cities Programs (Rockville, Md., 1971 );
171. and CONSULTEC, Inc., Final Report of City Demonstration Agency Information System Installation Efforts in Nine Second Round Model Cities Programs (Rockville, Md., 1971).
172. "Signature methodology" is David Jardini's phrase; "space-age management" was popularized by NASA head James Webb. See Jardini (n. 1 above) and Light (n. 1 above).
173. Wood, "To Government Science" (n. 3 above), 129. See the discussion by University of California, Berkeley, planning professor John Dyckman of "control by communication," in Dyckman, "Some Conditions of Civic Order in an Urbanized World," Daedalus 95, no. 3 (1966): 797-812.
174. Deutsch (n. 52 above), 132; Swanson and Johnson (n. 8 above), 9. On planning as self-regulation, see also John Dyckman, "New Normative Styles in Urban Studies," Public Administration Review 31, no. 3 (1971): 327-34.
175. Abel (n. 13 above), 502.
176. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Citizen Participation in Model Cities: A HUD Guide (Washington, D.C., 1968).
177. Paul Davidoff, "Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning," Journal of the American Institute of Planners 31 (1965): 331-38.
178. In a nod to Davidoff, the Abt game developers characterized their work as "advocacy gaming." See also Frieden and Kaplan (n. 8 above), 75, and Sherry Arnstein, "A Ladder of Citizen Participation," Journal of the American Institute of Planners 35 (1969): 216-24. In Chain Reaction (n. 72 above), Brian Balogh discusses connections between the expansion of experts in government and broader public participation in public policy debates.
179. Institute for Simulation Analysis, Truax Park Housing Simulation Program (Madison, Wisc., 1971);
180. Thomas Eisemon, "Simulations and Requirements for Citizen Participation in Public Housing: The Truax Technique," Environment and Behavior 7, no. 1 (1975): 99-123;
181. Alan Feldt, David O. Moses, and James Eckroad, WALRUS I: Water and Land Resource Utilization Simulation (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1972);
182. Thomas Pavlak, "Simulation Gaming in Community Programs," Simulation 22, no. 1 (1974): 21-25. In contrast to the specialized facilities created for military, business, and academic gaming, such community development games were generally played with citizens "on their own turf" (Lerer [n. 45 above], 51).
183. This is especially important in light of the fact that the systems approach was a flexible construct that was occasionally brought to bear on other visions of political participation, including more radical views of participatory democracy; see, for example, John D. McEwan, "The Cybernetics of Self-Organizing Systems," in The Case for Participatory Democracy: Some Prospects for a Radical Society, ed. C. George Benello and Dimitrios Roussopoulos (New York, 1971).
184. Haar (n. 11 above), 205.
185. Erving Goffman, Encounters (New York, 1961), 27.
186. Galison (n. 1 above); Light (n. 1 above); Edwards (n. 1 above).
187. The changing title for the main professional gaming society in the United States reflects this shift: from 1962 to 1967 it was the East Coast War Games Council; from 1968 to 1974 it was the National Gaming Council; and since 1975 it has been the North American Simulation and Gaming Association. Two of the most popular urban systems games, CLUG and METROPOLIS, were computerized; see Duke, Gaming-Simulation in Urban Research (n. 31 above), and Marshall Whithed, "TELECLUG: An Urban Simulation Game," in Whithed and Sarly (n. 9 above). In addition to operational games and computer models, there were many hybrid simulations that employed computers for some of the computational tasks previously performed by game operators, or that could be played with or without computers.
188. Guy Wagner, "Educational Games and the School Program," Teaching Aids News: The Magazine of Educational Technology 4, no. 5 (1964): 11-15.
189. During this era, games were occasionally referred to as "the future's language," suggestive of their high-tech aspirations; see Richard Duke, Gaming: The Future's Language (New York, 1974).
190. Lerer (n. 45 above), 50.
191. Classic essays - including James Coleman, "Introduction: In Defense of Games," American Behavioral Scientist 10, no. 2 (1966): 3-4,
192. and James S. Coleman, "Games as Vehicles for Social Theory," American Behavioral Scientist 12, no. 6 (1969): 2-6 - are compiled in Cathy S. Greenblat and Richard Duke, Gaming-Simulation - Rationale, Design, and Applications: A Text with Parallel Readings for Social Scientists, Educators, and Community Workers (Beverly Hills, Calif., 1975).
193. Richard Meier, WILDLIFE (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1958);
194. Richard Meier and Jane Doyle, "Simulation of the Concept of Community in Ecological Systems" (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1965), 5, VF NAC 1320g25 M;
195. Richard Meier, "Transmitting Concepts of Social Organizations with Simulations," paper prepared for the Institute for Government and Public Affairs Conference on Educational Innovations, UCLA Lake Arrowhead Conference Center, 17-20 December 1965 (Los Angeles, 1965);
196. Harold Guetzkow et al., Simulation in International Relations: Developments for Teaching and Research (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1963);
197. Harold Guetzkow and Cleo Cherryholmes, Inter-Nation Simulation Kit (Chicago, 1966);
198. Harold Guetzkow, Philip Kotier, and Randall Schultz, eds., Simulation
199. Peter House and Philip Patterson, "An Environmental Gaming Simulation Laboratory," Journal of the American Institute of Planners 35, no. 6 (1969): 383-88;
200. R. R. Goodman, The Inter-Community Simulation: An Experiment in Simulation-Gaming -Report to the US Economic Development Administration (Los Angeles, 1969);
201. Paul E. Torgersen and Robert E. Taylor, The Urban Mass Transit Game (Blacksburg, Va., 1969);
202. James Barker and William Fleming, "The Transportation Planning Laboratory," in Patterson, Recent Developments in Urban Gaming (n. 42 above).
203. Johnson's HUD staff, led by Richard Meier's occasional collaborator Leonard Duhl, also used gaming to test how federal-local relations in the Model Cities program would unfold; see U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Model Cities Simulation Exercise, April 2-3, 1967 -Confidential: Administrative Use Only (Washington, D.C, 1967).
204. Gerhard J. Hanneman, "Simulating Diffusion Processes," Simulation and Games (1971): 393.
205. Clark Abt, Serious Games (New York, 1970);
206. Joan Zweben and Richard Miller, "The Systems Games: Teaching, Training, Psychotherapy," Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice 5, no. 2 (1968): 73-76;
207. Fred Rasmussen, "Science Teaching and Academic Gaming," American Biology Teacher (1969): 559-61;
208. Barbara Varenhorst, "Game Theory, Simulations, and Group Counseling," Educational Technology (1973): 40-43;
209. Richard Duke and Cathy Greenblat, Game-Generating-Games: A Trilogy of Games for Community and Classroom (New York, 1979).
210. Cameron, A Study and Provision of Technical Assistance (n. 43 above), 10; Lerer (n. 45 above), 47.
211. Cited in Duke, Gaming-Simulation in Urban Research (n. 31 above), 33-34.
212. Richard Anderson and Christopher Shove, "Land Privatization and Operational Gaming," International Planning Studies 6 (February 2001): 55-67.