Cold War civil rights: Race and the image of American democracy

Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages

  Dudziak, Mary L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84884110986     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (280)

1. New York Times, August 23, 1958, p. 16; New York Times, August 25, 1958, p.16; New York Times, August 27, 1958, p. 16; New York Times, September 13, 1958, p. 9; New York Times, September 15, 1958, p. 21; New York Times, September 23, 1958, p. 20.
2. New York Times, August 25, 1958, p.16;
3. New York Times, August 27, 1958, p. 16;
4. New York Times, September 13, 1958, p. 9;
5. New York Times, September 15, 1958, p. 21;
6. New York Times, September 23, 1958, p. 20.
7. Philip A. Klinkner with Rogers M. Smith, The Unsteady March: The Rise and Decline of Racial Equality in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 109-118.
8. David M. Bixby, "The Roosevelt Court, Democratic Ideology and Minority Rights: Another Look at United States v. Classic," Yale Law Journal 90 (March 1981): 741.
9. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and American Democracy (New York: Harper and Row, 1944), 1004.
10. Pearl S. Buck, American Unity and Asia (New York: John Day, 1942), 29; Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 1016; John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 5, 26.
11. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 1016;
12. John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 5, 26.
13. Ellen Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America (Boston: Little Brown, 1998), 154-200, 359-415;
14. Penny M. Von Eschen, Race Against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937-1957 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997), 112-121.
15. Thomas Borstelmann, Apartheid's Reluctant Uncle: The United States and Southern Africa in the Early Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 56.
16. New York Times, July 31, 1946, pp. 1, 48;
17. New York Times, July 29, 1946, p. 36.
18. Congressional Record, 79th Cong., 2d Sess., 1946, 92, pt. 8:10258.
19. Donald R. McCoy and Richard T. Ruetten, Quest and Response: Minority Rights and the Truman Administration (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1973), 45-48;
20. Walter White, A Man Called White: The Autobiography of Walter White (New York: Viking Press, 1948), 322-323, 327.
21. Robert J. Donovan, Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1945-1948 (New York: Norton, 1977), 32-33.
22. Off the Record: The Private Papers of Harry S. Truman, Robert H. Ferrell, ed., (New York: Harper and Row, 1980), 146-147;
23. David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 588-589;
24. Alonzo L. Hamby, Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 364-666.
25. Donovan, Conflict and Crisis, 32-33, 114;
26. McCoy and Ruetten, Quest and Response, 127, 131-134, 145-146.
27. Sitkoff, "Election of 1948," 610;
28. McCoy and Ruetten, Quest and Response, 129, 143.
29. Sitkoff, "Election of 1948," 613-614; McCoy and Ruetten, Quest and Response, 143-144, 145-147; Barton J. Bernstein, "The Ambiguous Legacy: The Truman Administration and Civil Rights," in Politics and Policies of the Truman Administration, Barton J. Bernstein, ed. (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1970), 712-713.
30. McCoy and Ruetten, Quest and Response, 143-144, 145-147;
31. Barton J. Bernstein, "The Ambiguous Legacy: The Truman Administration and Civil Rights," in Politics and Policies of the Truman Administration, Barton J. Bernstein, ed. (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1970), 712-713.
32. Wayne Addison Clark, "An Analysis of the Relationship Between Anti-Communism and Segregationist Thought in the Deep South, 1948-1964" (Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, 1976), 12, 30, 34.
33. Robert E. Cushman, "Our Civil Rights Become a World Issue," New York Times magazine, January 12, 1948, p. 12.
34. New York Times, May 3, 1948, pp. 1, 12.
35. Chester Bowles, Ambassador's Report (New York: Harper, 1954), 2-3, 31, 99.
36. American Embassy, New Delhi, "Survey of Communist Propaganda in India," vol. 2, no. 13, July 1-31, 1952, folder 507, box 112, series 2, Chester Bowles Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, pp. 8-9.
37. SenatorWilliam Benton, Congressional Record, 81st Cong., 2nd Sess.,May 9, 1950, 6692.
38. Ivy, "American Negro Problem," 416-417.
39. Congressional Record, 81st Cong., 2nd Sess., May 9, 1950, 6993.
40. John H. Lord to Secretary of State, September 12, 1945, RG 59, 811.4016/9-1245, National Archives.
41. Logan, "Racism and Indian-U.S. Relations," 76 (quoting Bombay Chronicle, July 4, 1952).
42. Virginia A. Pratt, The Influence of Domestic Controversy on American Participation in the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, 1946-1953 (New York: Garland, 1986), 37; Rusk to Hulten, November 4, 1947, RG 59, 501.B.D Human Rights/11-447, National Archives.
43. Rusk to Hulten, November 4, 1947, RG 59, 501.B.D Human Rights/11-447, National Archives.
44. New York Times, June 2, 1946, p. 33; "The First Petition to the United Nations from the Afro-American People," in Herbert Aptheker, Afro-American History: The Modern Era (New York: Citadel Press, 1971), 301-311; Abner W. Berry, "Rough, Tough and Angry," New Masses, June 18, 1946, pp. 17-19.
45. "The First Petition to the United Nations from the Afro-American People," in Herbert Aptheker, Afro-American History: The Modern Era (New York: Citadel Press, 1971), 301-311;
46. Abner W. Berry, "Rough, Tough and Angry," New Masses, June 18, 1946, pp. 17-19.
47. "An Appeal to the World," reprinted in W. E. B. DuBois, "Three Centuries of Discrimination," The Crisis 54 (December 1947): 380; New York Times, October 24, 1947, p. 9; New York Times, October 12, 1947, p. 52; McCoy and Ruetten, Quest and Response, 67; Berman, The Politics of Civil Rights in the Truman Administration, 65-66.
48. Walter Frances, White, A Man Called White: The Autobiography of Walter White (New York: Viking Press, 1948), 358-359; McCoy and Ruetten, Quest and Response, 67; Gerald Horne, Black and Red: W. E. B. DuBois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War, 1944-1963 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986), 15, 78.
49. McCoy and Ruetten, Quest and Response, 67;
50. Gerald Horne, Black and Red: W. E. B. DuBois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War, 1944-1963 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986), 15, 78.
51. Berman, The Politics of Civil Rights in the Truman Administration, 66; McCoy and Ruetten, Quest and Response, 67; Joanna Schneider Zangrando and Robert L. Zangrando, "ER and Black Civil Rights," in Without Precedent: The Life and Career of Eleanor Roosevelt, Joan Hoff-Wilson and Marjorie Lightman, ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984), 88, 101-102.
52. McCoy and Ruetten, Quest and Response, 67;
53. Joanna Schneider Zangrando and Robert L. Zangrando, "ER and Black Civil Rights," in Without Precedent: The Life and Career of Eleanor Roosevelt, Joan Hoff-Wilson and Marjorie Lightman, ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984), 88, 101-102.
54. Berman, The Politics of Civil Rights in the Truman Administration, 66; White, Man Called White, 359; Horne, Black and Red, 79-80 (quoting Des Moines Register and Morgantown Post).
55. White, Man Called White, 359;
56. Horne, Black and Red, 79-80 (quoting Des Moines Register and Morgantown Post).
57. Robert Coe, U.S. Embassy, The Hague, The Netherlands, to Department of State, February 13, 1950, RG 59, 811.411/2-1350, National Archives.
58. Gerald Horne, Black and Red: W. E. B. DuBois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War, 1944-1963 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986), 280-281.
59. American Consul, Lagos, Nigeria, to Department of State, July 30, 1952 (as paraphrased and quoted in press release).
60. American Consul, Lagos, Nigeria, to Department of State, July 30, 1952 (as paraphrased and quoted in press release).
61. "Touring Schedule" and "Report of Jay Saunders Redding," September 30, 1952, folder 416, box 111, series 2, Chester Bowles Papers, p. 1 of Report.
62. William O. Douglas, Strange Lands and Friendly People (New York: Harper, 1951), 296.
63. American Embassy, New Delhi, "Survey of Communist Propaganda in India," Vol. 2, no. 14, August 1 to 31, 1952, folder 507, box 112, series 2, Chester Bowles Papers, p. 9.
64. New York Times, March 19, 1950, p. 50.
65. "Status Report on the National Psychological Effort and First Progress Report of the Psychological Strategy Board," Aug. 1, 1952, folder 391.1, box 22, Papers of the Psychological Strategy Board, Truman Library, p. 3.
66. W. James Ellison, "Paul Robeson and the State Department," The Crisis 84 (May 1977): 185;Martin Duberman, Paul Robeson (New York: Knopf, 1989), 341-350, 364-372.
67. Martin Duberman, Paul Robeson (New York: Knopf, 1989), 341-350, 364-372.
68. Duberman, Paul Robeson, 388-389; Alan Rogers, "Passports and Politics: The Courts and the ColdWar," The Historian 47 (August 1985): 499-502; Paul Robeson, Here I Stand (New York: Othello Associates, 1958), 71-81.
69. Alan Rogers, "Passports and Politics: The Courts and the ColdWar," The Historian 47 (August 1985): 499-502;
70. Paul Robeson, Here I Stand (New York: Othello Associates, 1958), 71-81.
71. Duberman, Paul Robeson, 398-403.
72. Civil Rights Congress, We Charge Genocide, vii, xiv-xvi, xvii-xviii, 58-187;
73. New York Times, December 18, 1951, p. 13.
74. Civil Rights Congress, We Charge Genocide, xvi.
75. Gary Giddins, Satchmo (New York: Doubleday, 1988), 160-165; Hugues Panassie, Louis Armstrong (New York: Scribner's, 1971), 34-36.
76. Hugues Panassie, Louis Armstrong (New York: Scribner's, 1971), 34-36.
77. Lynn Haney, Naked at the Feast: A Biography of Josephine Baker (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1981), 247-252; Phyllis Rose, Jazz Cleopatra: Josephine Baker in Her Times, (New York: Atheneum, 1989), 218-19; Chicago Defender,October 27, 1951, pp. 1-2; Amsterdam News, July 14, 1951, p. 22.
78. Phyllis Rose, Jazz Cleopatra: Josephine Baker in Her Times, (New York: Atheneum, 1989), 218-19;
79. Chicago Defender,October 27, 1951, pp. 1-2;
80. Amsterdam News, July 14, 1951, p. 22.
81. Haney, Naked at the Feast, 238, 255-256; Washington Post, October 22, 1951, p. 9B; Washington Post, October 24, 1951, p. 15B; Washington Post, October 26, 1951, p. 15B; Washington Post, November 30, 1951, p. 15B; Washington Post, November 3, 1951, p. 9B; "Josephine Baker," files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, file no. 62-95834; Counterattack, letter no. 200, March 23, 1951, pp. 3-4; FBI file, cross-references.
82. Washington Post, October 22, 1951, p. 9B;
83. Washington Post, October 24, 1951, p. 15B;
84. Washington Post, October 26, 1951, p. 15B;
85. Washington Post, November 30, 1951, p. 15B;
86. Washington Post, November 3, 1951, p. 9B;
87. "Josephine Baker," files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, file no. 62-95834;
88. Counterattack, letter no. 200, March 23, 1951, pp. 3-4;
89. Raine to Haden, October 20, 1952.
90. N. W. Philcox to R. R. Roach, Re: Josephine Baker, December 10, 1954, FBI file, teletype message to FBI, January 28, 1955; G. H. Scatterday to A. H. Belmont, Re: Josephine Baker, February 10, 1960, FBI file.
91. Chester Bowles, "Racial Harmony-HowMuch Does itMatter inWorld Affairs?" 1952, folder 540, box 115, series 2, Chester Bowles Papers.
92. Chester Bowles, Ambassador's Report (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954), 31, 216-217, 395-396.
93. Chester Bowles, "Racial Harmony-HowMuch Does itMatter inWorld Affairs?" 1952, folder 540, box 115, series 2, Chester Bowles Papers.
94. Harry S. Truman, "Special Message to the Congress on Civil Rights," February 2, 1948, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Harry S. Truman, 1948 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1964), 121-126.
95. Walter White, Broadcast over Columbia Broadcasting System from Cincinnati, Ohio, July 7, 1945, NAACP Papers, part 9, series B, reel 26, F0188.
96. PresidentHarry S. Truman, executive order, "Establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, Executive Order 9981," Federal Register 13 (July 26, 1948): 4313;
97. David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 587.
98. Bernard C. Nalty, Strength for the Fight: A History of Black Americans in the Military (New York: Free Press, 1986), 241-242.
99. Nalty, Strength for the Fight, 241;
100. Michael S. Sherry, In the Shadow of War: The United States Since the 1930s (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995), 147.
101. Jacob K. Javits, press release, January 12, 1950, Digitalization: Project Whistlestop, Desegregation of the Armed Forces, Truman Library.
102. Nalty, Strength for the Fight, 255-269.
103. Congressional Record, 81st Cong., 2nd Sess., 1950, 96: 6692.
104. Elliff, The United States Department of Justice and Individual Rights, 254-259.
105. Congressional Record, 81st Cong., 2nd Sess., May 9, 1950, 96: 6694.
106. Elliff, The United States Department of Justice and Individual Rights, 323-329;
107. Henderson, 339 U.S. at 825-826.
108. William O. Douglas, Strange Lands and Friendly People (New York: Harper, 1951), 296.
109. William O. Douglas, Beyond the High Himalayas (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1953), 317, 321-323.
110. Carl T. Rowan, The Pitiful and the Proud (New York: Random House, 1956), 19;
111. "Chief Justice Warren In India," Baltimore Sun, October 1, 1956, India 1956 Correspondence, Clippings, Photographs Folder No. 1, Foreign File, Personal Papers, Papers of Earl Warren, Library of Congress.
112. New York Times, May 18, 1954, p. 2 (quoting New York Herald Tribune and the Pittsburgh Courier);
113. San Francisco Chronicle, May 18, 1954, p. 18.
114. Birmingham Post-Herald, May 18, 1954, p. 5 (quoting Charlotte News); New York Times, May 18, 1954, pp. 1, 20;
115. New York Times, May 18, 1954, pp. 1, 20;
116. Atlanta Daily World, May 18, 1954, p. 1.
117. John Barlow Martin, The Deep South Says Never (New York: Ballantine Books, 1957), 1-4, 24.
118. Wayne Addison Clark, "An Analysis of the Relationship Between Anti-Comunism and Segregationist Thought in the Deep South, 1946-1964" (Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, 1976).
119. Herman E. Talmadge, You and Segregation (Birmingham, Ala.: Vulcan Press, 1955), vii, 1.
120. Time, November 14, 1955, p. 31.
121. American Consul General, Madras, India, to Department of State, February 28, 1956, RG 59, 811.411/2-2856, National Archives.
122. Arkansas Gazette, September 5, 1957, p. A1, reprinted in Record and Record, Little Rock, U.S.A., 40.
123. Record and Record, Little Rock, U.S.A., 209;
124. Orval Faubus, Down from the Hills (Little Rock, Ark.: Pioneer, 1980), 211
125. Herbert Brownell and John P. Burk, Advising Ike: The Memoirs of Attorney General Herbert Brownell (Lawrence: The University Press of Kansas, 1993), 207.
126. Faubus, Down from the Hills, 19-20, 55;
127. Robert Fredrick Burk, The Eisenhower Administration and Black Civil Rights (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984), 154-156;
128. Tony Allan Freyer, The Little Rock Crisis: A Constitutional Interpretation (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1984), 63-68.
129. Record and Record, Little Rock, U.S.A., 37.
130. Record and Record, Little Rock, U.S.A., 38, 41-42;
131. Record and Record, Little Rock, U.S.A., 39;
132. Eisenhower to Faubus, September 5, 1957, microformed in series D, reel 1, frame 358 (U.S. Government Printing Office) NAACP Papers, Collections of the Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.
133. Record and Record, Little Rock, U.S.A., 51-53.
134. Faubus, Down from the Hills, 205 (quoting Arkansas Gazette).
135. Arkansas Gazette, September 11, 1957, p. 2A, reprinted in Record and Record, Little Rock, U.S.A., 48-49; 0
136. Harry S. Ashmore, "The Easy Chair," Harper's Magazine, June 1958, microformed in series D, reel 2, frame 60, NAACP Papers; Ross to Faubus, October 14, 1957, microformed in series D, reel 1, frame 796, NAACP Papers.
137. New York Times, September 26, 1957, p. 14.
138. Izvestia, September 13, 1957, p. 4, reprinted in Current Digest of the Soviet Press 9 (October 23, 1957): 25.
139. Current Digest of the Soviet Press 9 (October 23, 1957): 25-26.
140. Faubus, Down from the Hills, 221.
141. The Times (London), September 20, 1957, p. F10.
142. The Times (London), September 23, 1957, p. C6.
143. Race Relations Law Reporter 2 (1957): 957-963.
144. Record and Record, Little Rock U.S.A., 56-57.
145. Eisenhower, The White House Years, 169-172.
146. Eisenhower, The White House Years, 170.
147. Eisenhower, The White House Years, 172;
148. Dwight D. Eisenhower, "Radio and Television Address to the American People on the Situation in Little Rock," September 24, 1957, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1957, 690-694.
149. Atlanta Constitution, Sept. 25, 1957, pp. 1, 5.
150. South China Morning Post, September 28, 1957, p. 11;
151. Times of India, September 30, 1957, p. 6;
152. Eyes on the Prize-America's Civil Rights Years, Fighting Back 1957-1962, produced by Blackslide, Inc., for PBS-TV, 1986.
153. The Hague to Secretary of State, September 27, 1957, RG 59, 811.411/9-2757, National Archives.
154. Hindustan Times, September 29, 1957, p. 1.
155. South China Morning Post, October 4, 1957, p. 1.
156. Larson to Eisenhower, September 30, 1957, USIA (1), Whitman File, Administrative Series, Eisenhower Library.
157. Goodenough to Lemley, June 30, 1958, microformed in series D, reel 1, frame 892, NAACP Papers.
158. Randolph, Granger, King, and Wilkins to Eisenhower, June 23, 1958, microformed in series D, reel 1, frames 855-861, NAACP Papers.
159. United States Information Agency, "Post-Little Rock Opinion," 1.
160. Department of State Instruction no. CA-3382, October 10, 1957;
161. Instruction from the Department of State to Belgrade, et al., October 10, 1957.
162. Eyes on the Prize, Part 2: Fighting Back 1957-1962;
163. Beals, Warriors Don't Cry, 241, 299-305.
164. Freyer, Little Rock Crisis, 148.
165. Dennis J. Hutchinson, "Unanimity and Desegregation: Decisionmaking in the Supreme Court, 1948-1958," Georgetown Law Journal 68 (October 1979): 78;
166. Times (London), September 30, 1958, p. 9;
167. Times (London), September 15, 1958, p. 8;
168. Times (London), September 18, 1958, p. 8;
169. Times (London), September 23, 1958, p. 7;
170. Times (London), September 17, 1958, p. 10;
171. Times (London), September 19, 1958, p. 9;
172. Times (London), September 16, 1958, p. 8;
173. Times (London), September 22, 1958, p. 9.
174. Daisy Bates, The Long Shadow of Little Rock: A Memoir (New York: David McKay, 1962), 163; Greenberg, Crusaders in the Courts, 242.
175. Dwight D. Eisenhower, The White House Years: Waging Peace, 1956-1961, (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965), 162, 168
176. Times (London), September 4, 1957, p. H10.
177. H. S. Wilson, African Decolonization (London: Edward Arnold, 1994), 177.
178. William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 71-100.
179. John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 260-280;
180. Jennifer Whitmore See, "US-Soviet Entente?: John F. Kennedy and the Pursuit of Peace, 1963" (paper presented at annual meeting of the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations, June 1996).
181. David Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (New York: William Morrow, 1986);
182. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954-1963 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988).
183. Harris Wofford, recorded interview by Berl Bernhard, November 29, 1965, pp. 7, 31, John F. Kennedy Library Oral History Program, Kennedy Library.
184. Richard D. Mahoney, JFK: Ordeal in Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 20-33.
185. Brauer, Second Reconstruction, 43, 127, 205-210, 212-213;
186. Branch, Parting the Waters, 586-587;
187. Wofford, Of Kennedys and Kings, 124;
188. Arthur Schlesinger, A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965), 847-849, 853.
189. Elisabeth Cobbs Hoffman, All You Need is Love: The Peace Corps and the Spirit of the 1960s (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), 29.
190. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights, 71;
191. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 127-136
192. August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 135-158;
193. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 158-161.
194. Meier and Rudwick, CORE, 136-138;
195. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 155-157.
196. Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, 854-855;
197. Meier and Rudwick, CORE, 138.
198. Eyes on the Prize-America's Civil Rights Years, Ain't Scared of Your Jails, 1960-1961, produced by Blackslide, Inc., for PBS-TV, 1986.
199. Richard Reeves, President Kennedy: Profile of Power (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994), 123;
200. Wofford, Of Kennedys and Kings, 125.
201. Meier and Rudwick, CORE, 139.
202. United States Information Agency, "Media Comment on the Mississippi Crisis," October 5, 1962, pp. 9-12.
203. Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, 866.
204. Rusk, As I Saw It, 582.
205. Wofford, Of Kennedys and Kings, 127-128;
206. Brauer, Second Reconstruction, 77.
207. Branch, Parting the Waters, 758-763.
208. Cotman, Birmingham, JFK and the Civil Rights Act, 35.
209. Burke Marshall Oral History Interview, May 29, 1964, pp. 98-99,
210. Kennedy Library; Cotman, Birmingham, JFK and the Civil Rights Act, 21-60.
211. Keesing's Contemporary Archives, 14:19463;
212. Brubeck to Bundy, May 27, 1963.
213. Rusk to All American Diplomatic and Consular Posts, Circular 2177, June 19, 1963.
214. Reeves, President Kennedy, 514-522.
215. Cotman, Birmingham, JFK and the Civil Rights Act, 147.
216. John F. Kennedy, "Radio and Television Report to the American People on Civil Rights," June 11, 1963, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: John F. Kennedy, 1963, (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1964), 468.
217. John F. Kennedy, "SpecialMessage to the Congress on Civil Rights and Job Opportunities," June 19, 1963, Public Papers of the Presidents: John F. Kennedy, 1963, 483.
218. Brauer, Second Reconstruction, 247.
219. Congressional Record, 88th Cong., 1st Sess., 1963, 109, pt. 6: 8293.
220. U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Hearings on S. 1732, 281;
221. Rusk, As I Saw It, 586.
222. U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Hearings on S. 1732, 281-282.
223. U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Hearings on S. 1732;
224. New York Times, July 11, 1963, p. 16.
225. U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Hearings on S. 1732;
226. New York Times, July 11, 1963, p. 16.
227. Scott A. Sandage, "A Marble House Divided: The Lincoln Memorial, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Politics of Memory, 1939-1963," Journal of American History 80 (June 1993): 137-138, 159.
228. Barber, "Marches on Washington," 444-447.
229. Sargent to Fales, August 28, 1963.
230. Paris to Secretary of State, August 21, 1963;
231. Sargent to Fales, August 28, 1963.
232. American Embassy, Cairo, to Secretary of State, August 31, 1963.
233. United States Information Agency, "Worldwide Comment on the Washington Civil Rights March," September 6, 1963.
234. Harris Wofford, Oral History Interview, Kennedy Library, 50, 63.
235. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960's (Cambridge: Har-vard University Press, 1981), 9-30; Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, Clayborne Carson, David J. Garrow, Vincent Harding, Darlene Clark Hine, eds., (New York: Penguin Books, 1987), 78-79, 83-88.
236. Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, Clayborne Carson, David J. Garrow, Vincent Harding, Darlene Clark Hine, eds., (New York: Penguin Books, 1987), 78-79, 83-88.
237. Lyndon B. Johnson, "Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress," November 27, 1963, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1963-64 (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965), 1:8-9.
238. Hugh J. Parry, "America's Human Rights Image Abroad," February 26, 1964, p. 1, Folder: S-3-64, RG 306, Records of the United States Information Agency, Office of Research, Special "S" Reports, 1964-82, Box 1, National Archives.
239. United States Information Agency, "Foreign Reaction to Senate Passage of Civil Rights Bill," June 29, 1964.
240. Rowan to Johnson, June 23, 1964.
241. Rusk to Weltner, July 2, 1964, RG 59, Central Foreign Policy Files, 1964-66, SOC 14-1 US, National Archives.
242. Lyndon B. Johnson, "Radio and Television Remarks Upon Signing the Civil Rights Bill," July 2, 1964, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1963-64, 1: 842-844.
243. George C. Herring, America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), 119-123;
244. William Chafe, The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 278-280.
245. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), 111-115.
246. Allen J. Matusow, The Unraveling of America: A Story of Liberalism in the 1960s (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), 139.
247. Rowan to Johnson, July 27, 1964, WhiteHouse Central File, Federal Government, Folder: FG 296, 7/1/64-9/30/64, Johnson Library.
248. The March (1964).
249. Charles Guggenheim, Nine from Little Rock (1964), RG 306.05160, National Archives.
250. Rowan to Johnson, April 8, 1965, Folder: FG 296 U. S. Information Service 1/1/65 -6/1/65, White House Central Files, Subject File, Federal Government, Box 314, Johnson Library.
251. Malcolm X, "The Ballot or the Bullet," April 3, 1964, inMalcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements, George Breitman, ed. (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1965), 26, 35.
252. Peter Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, 2nd ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979), 217-218.
253. James Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart: An Autobiography of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Arbor House, 1985), 228;
254. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, 218-219.
255. David J. Garrow, Protest at Selma: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978), 31-36;
256. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 380.
257. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 394-399.
258. Lyndon B. Johnson, "Special Message to the Congress: The American Promise," March 15, 1965, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1965, 1:281.
259. GunnarMyrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem andModern Democracy (New York: Harper and Row, 1944), lxix;
260. Johnson, "Special Message to the Congress," Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1965, 1: 281-282.
261. Johnson, "Special Message to the Congress," Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1965, 1:284.
262. Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (New York: Da Capo Press, 1997), 45-133;
263. Matusow, The Unraveling of America, 362;
264. Lester A. Sobel, Civil Rights 1960-66 (New York: Facts on File, 1967), 306.
265. Todd Gitlin, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam Books, 1987), 242-260.
266. "Racial Issues in the U.S.: Some Policy and Program Indications of Research," March 14, 1966, RG 306, Records of the United States Information Agency, Office of Research, Special "S" Reports, 1964-82, S-3-66, National Archives (emphasis in original).
267. Herring, America's Longest War, 170-185;
268. Chafe, The Unfinished Journey, 296-297.
269. Chafe, The Unfinished Journey, 273;
270. U.S. Information Agency, "Senegalese Opinion on Selected African and International Issues," March 1966, RG 306, Records of the United States Information Agency, Office of Research, "R" Reports, 1964-74, Folder R- 68-66, National Archives.
271. Dan T. Carter, The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 306-307.
272. Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X, 275-278;
273. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 392-393, 623-624;
274. Gitlin, The Sixties, 305-313.
275. Carter, The Politics of Rage, 362-364.
276. James Baldwin, "Stranger in the Village," in Notes of a Native Son (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955), 175.
277. New York Times, April 10, 1968, pp. 1, 34; Newsweek, April 22, 1968, pp. 26, 31; Andrew Young, An Easy Burden: The Civil Rights Movement and the Transformation of America (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), 477-478.
278. Newsweek, April 22, 1968, pp. 26, 31;
279. Andrew Young, An Easy Burden: The Civil Rights Movement and the Transformation of America (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), 477-478.
280. David R. Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998).