Treatment of Refractory Status Epilepticus: Literature Review and a Proposed Protocol

Pediatric Neurology

Volumn 38, Issue 6, 2008, Pages 377-390

  Abend, Nicholas S ^a,b   Dlugos, Dennis J ^a,b  

^a CHILDREN S HOSPITAL OF PHILADELPHIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; CATECHOLAMINE; CORTICOSTEROID; CORTICOSTEROID DERIVATIVE; CORTICOTROPIN; DIAZEPAM; ETIRACETAM; FOSPHENYTOIN SODIUM; ISOFLURANE; KETAMINE; LORAZEPAM; MIDAZOLAM; PENTOBARBITAL; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENYTOIN; PROPOFOL; PYRIDOXAL 5 PHOSPHATE; PYRIDOXINE; THIOPENTAL; TOPIRAMATE; VALPROIC ACID;

ABSENCE OF SIDE EFFECTS; ALGORITHM; ATELECTASIS; BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; BODY MASS; BRAIN DISEASE; BREAKTHROUGH BLEEDING; CEREBELLUM DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG DOSE TITRATION; DRUG FATALITY; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG TOLERANCE; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM; EPILEPSY; EPILEPTIC STATE; FORWARD HEART FAILURE; HEART FAILURE; HUMAN; HYPERTRIGLYCERIDEMIA; HYPOTENSION; HYPOTHERMIA; INDUCED HYPOTHERMIA; INFECTION; INTRACRANIAL PRESSURE; KIDNEY FAILURE; LIVER TOXICITY; MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY; METABOLIC ACIDOSIS; MYOCARDIAL DEPRESSION; NERVE CELL EXCITABILITY; NEUROPROTECTION; NONHUMAN; PARALYTIC ILEUS; PARENTERAL NUTRITION; PLASMAPHERESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESPIRATION DEPRESSION; REVIEW; RHABDOMYOLYSIS; SEIZURE; SIDE EFFECT; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY; TACHYPHYLAXIS; TERTIARY HEALTH CARE;

ANESTHETICS; ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS; ANTICONVULSANTS; CHILD; CLINICAL PROTOCOLS; DRUG RESISTANCE; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; HUMANS; HYPERTHERMIA, INDUCED; PLASMAPHERESIS; STATUS EPILEPTICUS;

EID: 43449091883     PISSN: 08878994     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2008.01.001     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. Lowenstein D.H., Bleck T., and Macdonald R.L. It's time to revise the definition of status epilepticus. Epilepsia 40 (1999) 120-122
2. Shinnar S., Berg A.T., Moshe S.L., and Shinnar R. How long do new-onset seizures in children last?. Ann Neurol 49 (2001) 659-664
3. Wasterlain C.G., and Chen J.W. Definition and classification of status epilepticus. In: Wasterlain C.G., and Treiman D.M. (Eds). Status epilepticus (2006), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 11-16
4. Lowenstein D.H., and Alldredge B.K. Status epilepticus at an urban public hospital in the 1980s. Neurology 43 (1993) 483-488
5. Treiman D.M., Meyers P.D., Walton N.Y., et al. A comparison of four treatments for generalized convulsive status epilepticus. Veterans Affairs Status Epilepticus Cooperative Study Group. N Engl J Med 339 (1998) 792-798
6. Mayer S.A., Claassen J., Lokin J., Mendelsohn F., Dennis L.J., and Fitzsimmons B.F. Refractory status epilepticus: Frequency, risk factors, and impact on outcome. Arch Neurol 59 (2002) 205-210
7. Brevoord J.C., Joosten K.F., Arts W.F., van Rooij R.W., and de Hoog M. Status epilepticus: Clinical analysis of a treatment protocol based on midazolam and phenytoin. J Child Neurol 20 (2005) 476-481
8. Eriksson K., Metsaranta P., Huhtala H., Auvinen A., Kuusela A.L., and Koivikko M. Treatment delay and the risk of prolonged status epilepticus. Neurology 65 (2005) 1316-1318
9. Lewena S., and Young S. When benzodiazepines fail: How effective is second line therapy for status epilepticus in children?. Emerg Med Australas 18 (2006) 45-50
10. Maytal J., Shinnar S., Moshe S.L., and Alvarez L.A. Low morbidity and mortality of status epilepticus in children. Pediatrics 83 (1989) 323-331
11. Dunn D.W. Status epilepticus in children: Etiology, clinical features, and outcome. J Child Neurol 3 (1988) 167-173
12. Eriksson K.J., and Koivikko M.J. Status epilepticus in children: Aetiology, treatment, and outcome. Dev Med Child Neurol 39 (1997) 652-658
13. Chin R.F., Neville B.G., Peckham C., Bedford H., Wade A., and Scott R.C. Incidence, cause, and short-term outcome of convulsive status epilepticus in childhood: Prospective population-based study. Lancet 368 (2006) 222-229
14. Holtkamp M., Othman J., Buchheim K., and Meierkord H. Predictors and prognosis of refractory status epilepticus treated in a neurological intensive care unit. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 76 (2005) 534-539
15. Holtkamp M., Othman J., Buchheim K., Masuhr F., Schielke E., and Meierkord H. A "malignant" variant of status epilepticus. Arch Neurol 62 (2005) 1428-1431
16. Van Lierde I., Van Paesschen W., Dupont P., Maes A., and Sciot R. De novo cryptogenic refractory multifocal febrile status epilepticus in the young adult: A review of six cases. Acta Neurol Belg 103 (2003) 88-94
17. Wilder-Smith E.P., Lim E.C., Teoh H.L., et al. The NORSE (new-onset refractory status epilepticus) syndrome: Defining a disease entity. Ann Acad Med Singapore 34 (2005) 417-420
18. Kramer U., Shorer Z., Ben-Zeev B., Lerman-Sagie T., Goldberg-Stern H., and Lahat E. Severe refractory status epilepticus owing to presumed encephalitis. J Child Neurol 20 (2005) 184-187
19. Chen J.W., and Wasterlain C.G. Status epilepticus: Pathophysiology and management in adults. Lancet Neurol 5 (2006) 246-256
20. Rogawski M.A., and Loscher W. The neurobiology of antiepileptic drugs. Nat Rev Neurosci 5 (2004) 553-564
21. Naritoku D.K., and Sinha S. Prolongation of midazolam half-life after sustained infusion for status epilepticus. Neurology 54 (2000) 1366-1368
22. Kumar A., and Bleck T.P. Intravenous midazolam for the treatment of refractory status epilepticus. Crit Care Med 20 (1992) 483-488
23. Rivera R., Segnini M., Baltodano A., and Perez V. Midazolam in the treatment of status epilepticus in children. Crit Care Med 21 (1993) 991-994
24. Koul R.L., Raj Aithala G., Chacko A., Joshi R., and Seif Elbualy M. Continuous midazolam infusion as treatment of status epilepticus. Arch Dis Child 76 (1997) 445-448
25. Igartua J., Silver P., Maytal J., and Sagy M. Midazolam coma for refractory status epilepticus in children. Crit Care Med 27 (1999) 1982-1985
26. Singhi S., Murthy A., Singhi P., and Jayashree M. Continuous midazolam versus diazepam infusion for refractory convulsive status epilepticus. J Child Neurol 17 (2002) 106-110
27. Ozdemir D., Gulez P., Uran N., Yendur G., Kavakli T., and Aydin A. Efficacy of continuous midazolam infusion and mortality in childhood refractory generalized convulsive status epilepticus. Seizure 14 (2005) 129-132
28. Gilbert D.L., Gartside P.S., and Glauser T.A. Efficacy and mortality in treatment of refractory generalized convulsive status epilepticus in children: A meta-analysis. J Child Neurol 14 (1999) 602-609
29. Morrison G., Gibbons E., and Whitehouse W.P. High-dose midazolam therapy for refractory status epilepticus in children. Intensive Care Med 32 (2006) 2070-2076
30. Koul R., Chacko A., Javed H., and Al Riyami K. Eight-year study of childhood status epilepticus: Midazolam infusion in management and outcome. J Child Neurol 17 (2002) 908-910
31. Hayashi K., Osawa M., Aihara M., et al. Efficacy of intravenous midazolam for status epilepticus in childhood. Pediatr Neurol 36 (2007) 366-372
32. Holtkamp M., Masuhr F., Harms L., Einhaupl K.M., Meierkord H., and Buchheim K. The management of refractory generalised convulsive and complex partial status epilepticus in three European countries: A survey among epileptologists and critical care neurologists. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 74 (2003) 1095-1099
33. Claassen J., Hirsch L.J., and Mayer S.A. Treatment of status epilepticus: A survey of neurologists. J Neurol Sci 211 (2003) 37-41
34. Claassen J., Hirsch L.J., Emerson R.G., and Mayer S.A. Treatment of refractory status epilepticus with pentobarbital, propofol, or midazolam: A systematic review. Epilepsia 43 (2002) 146-153
35. Kim S.J., Lee D.Y., and Kim J.S. Neurologic outcomes of pediatric epileptic patients with pentobarbital coma. Pediatr Neurol 25 (2001) 217-220
36. Holmes G.L., and Riviello Jr. J.J. Midazolam and pentobarbital for refractory status epilepticus. Pediatr Neurol 20 (1999) 259-264
37. Shaner D.M., McCurdy S.A., Herring M.O., and Gabor A.J. Treatment of status epileticus: A prospective comparison of diazepam and phenytoin versus phenobarbital and optional phenytoin. Neurology 38 (1988) 202-207
38. Crawford T.O., Mitchell W.G., Fishman L.S., and Snodgrass S.R. Very-high-dose phenobarbital for refractory status epilepticus in children. Neurology 38 (1988) 1035-1040
39. Lee W.K., Liu K.T., and Young B.W. Very-high-dose phenobarbital for childhood refractory status epilepticus. Pediatr Neurol 34 (2006) 63-65
40. Mirski M.A., Williams M.A., and Hanley D.F. Prolonged pentobarbital and phenobarbital coma for refractory generalized status epilepticus. Crit Care Med 23 (1995) 400-404
41. Baumeister F.A., Oberhoffer R., Liebhaber G.M., et al. Fatal propofol infusion syndrome in association with ketogenic diet. Neuropediatrics 35 (2004) 250-252
42. Niermeijer J.M., Uiterwaal C.S., and Van Donselaar C.A. Propofol in status epilepticus: Little evidence, many dangers?. J Neurol 250 (2003) 1237-1240
43. Enting D., Ligtenberg J.J., Aarts L.P., and Zijlstra J.G. Total suppression of cerebral activity by thiopental mimicking propofol infusion syndrome: A fatal common pathway?. Anesth Analg 100 (2005) 1864-1865
44. van Gestel J.P., Blusse van Oud-Alblas H.J., Malingre M., Ververs F.F., Braun K.P., and van Nieuwenhuizen O. Propofol and thiopental for refractory status epilepticus in children. Neurology 65 (2005) 591-592
45. Rossetti A.O., Reichhart M.D., Schaller M.D., Despland P.A., and Bogousslavsky J. Propofol treatment of refractory status epilepticus: A study of 31 episodes. Epilepsia 45 (2004) 757-763
46. Parviainen I., Uusaro A., Kalviainen R., Mervaala E., and Ruokonen E. Propofol in the treatment of refractory status epilepticus. Intensive Care Med 32 (2006) 1075-1079
47. Eger Jr. E.I. New inhalational agents-Desflurane and sevoflurane. Can J Anaesth 40 (1993) R3-R8
48. Jaaskelainen S.K., Kaisti K., Suni L., Hinkka S., and Scheinin H. Sevoflurane is epileptogenic in healthy subjects at surgical levels of anesthesia. Neurology 61 (2003) 1073-1078
49. Kofke W.A., Young R.S., Davis P., et al. Isoflurane for refractory status epilepticus: A clinical series. Anesthesiology 71 (1989) 653-659
50. Mirsattari S.M., Sharpe M.D., and Young G.B. Treatment of refractory status epilepticus with inhalational anesthetic agents isoflurane and desflurane. Arch Neurol 61 (2004) 1254-1259
51. Borris D.J., Bertram E.H., and Kapur J. Ketamine controls prolonged status epilepticus. Epilepsy Res 42 (2000) 117-122
52. Shibuta S., Varathan S., and Mashimo T. Ketamine and thiopental sodium: Individual and combined neuroprotective effects on cortical cultures exposed to NMDA or nitric oxide. Br J Anaesth 97 (2006) 517-524
53. Mewasingh L.D., Sekhara T., Aeby A., Christiaens F.J., and Dan B. Oral ketamine in paediatric non-convulsive status epilepticus. Seizure 12 (2003) 483-489
54. Sheth R.D., and Gidal B.E. Refractory status epilepticus: Response to ketamine. Neurology 51 (1998) 1765-1766
55. Ubogu E.E., Sagar S.M., Lerner A.J., Maddux B.N., Suarez J.I., and Werz M.A. Ketamine for refractory status epilepticus: A case of possible ketamine-induced neurotoxicity. Epilepsy Behav 4 (2003) 70-75
56. Ben Yehuda Y., and Watemberg N. Ketamine increases opening cerebrospinal pressure in children undergoing lumbar puncture. J Child Neurol 21 (2006) 441-443
57. Himmelseher S., and Durieux M.E. Revising a dogma: Ketamine for patients with neurological injury?. Anesth Analg 101 (2005) 524-534
58. Limdi N.A., Knowlton R.K., Cofield S.S., et al. Safety of rapid intravenous loading of valproate. Epilepsia 48 (2007) 478-483
59. Yu K.T., Mills S., Thompson N., and Cunanan C. Safety and efficacy of intravenous valproate in pediatric status epilepticus and acute repetitive seizures. Epilepsia 44 (2003) 724-726
60. Uberall M.A., Trollmann R., Wunsiedler U., and Wenzel D. Intravenous valproate in pediatric epilepsy patients with refractory status epilepticus. Neurology 54 (2000) 2188-2189
61. White J.R., and Santos C.S. Intravenous valproate associated with significant hypotension in the treatment of status epilepticus. J Child Neurol 14 (1999) 822-823
62. Riviello J.J., Ashwal S., Hirtz D., et al. Practice parameter: Diagnostic assessment of the child with status epilepticus (an evidence-based review). Neurology 67 (2006) 1542-1550
63. Glauser T.A., Clark P.O., and Strawsburg R. A pilot study of topiramate in the treatment of infantile spasms. Epilepsia 39 (1998) 1324-1328
64. Kahriman M., Minecan D., Kutluay E., Selwa L., and Beydoun A. Efficacy of topiramate in children with refractory status epilepticus. Epilepsia 44 (2003) 1353-1356
65. Perry M.S., Holt P.J., and Sladky J.R.T. Topiramate loading for refractory status epilepticus in children. Epilepsia 47 (2006) 1070-1071
66. Blumkin L., Lerman-Sagie T., Houri T., et al. Pediatric refractory partial status epilepticus responsive to topiramate. J Child Neurol 20 (2005) 239-241
67. Towne A.R., Garnett L.K., Waterhouse E.J., Morton L.D., and DeLorenzo R.J. The use of topiramate in refractory status epilepticus. Neurology 60 (2003) 332-334
68. Bensalem M.K., and Fakhoury T.A. Topiramate and status epilepticus: Report of three cases. Epilepsy Behav 4 (2003) 757-760
69. Reuber M., Evans J., and Bamford J.M. Topiramate in drug-resistant complex partial status epilepticus. Eur J Neurol 9 (2002) 111-112
70. Doose D.R., Walker S.A., Gisclon L.G., and Nayak R.K. Single-dose pharmacokinetics and effect of food on the bioavailability of topiramate, a novel antiepileptic drug. J Clin Pharmacol 36 (1996) 884-891
71. Mazarati A.M., Baldwin R., Klitgaard H., Matagne A., and Wasterlain C.G. Anticonvulsant effects of levetiracetam and levetiracetam-diazepam combinations in experimental status epilepticus. Epilepsy Res 58 (2004) 167-174
72. Gibbs J.E., Walker M.G., and Cock H.R. Levetiracetam: Antiepileptic properties and protective effects on mitochondrial dysfunction in experimental status epilepticus. Epilepsia 47 (2006) 469-478
73. Glien M., Brandt C., Potschka H., and Loscher W. Effects of the novel antiepileptic drug levetiracetam on spontaneous recurrent seizures in the rat pilocarpine model of temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia 43 (2002) 350-357
74. Szaflarski J.P., Meckler J.M., Szaflarski M., Shutter L.A., Privitera M.D., and Yates S.L. Levetiracetam use in critically ill patients. Neurocrit Care 7 (2007) 140-147
75. Ramael S., Daoust A., Otou C., et al. Levetiracetam intravenous infusion: A randomized, placebo-controlled safety and pharmacokinetic study. Epilepsia 47 (2006) 1128-1135
76. Ramael S., De Smedt F., Toublanc N., et al. Single-dose bioavailability of levetiracetam intravenous infusion relative to oral tablets and multiple-dose pharmacokinetics and tolerability of levetiracetam intravenous infusion compared with placebo in healthy subjects. Clin Ther 28 (2006) 734-744
77. Patel N.C., Landan I.R., Levin J., Szaflarski J., and Wilner A.N. The use of levetiracetam in refractory status epilepticus. Seizure 15 (2006) 137-141
78. Rupprecht S., Franke K., Fitzek S., Witte O.W., and Hagemann G. Levetiracetam as a treatment option in non-convulsive status epilepticus. Epilepsy Res 73 (2007) 238-244
79. Rossetti A.O., and Bromfield E.B. Determinants of success in the use of oral levetiracetam in status epilepticus. Epilepsy Behav 8 (2006) 651-654
80. Trabacca A., Profice P., Costanza M.C., Gesualdi M., and De Rinaldis M. Levetiracetam in nonconvulsive status epilepticus in childhood: A case report. J Child Neurol 22 (2007) 639-641
81. Gospe Jr. S.M. Pyridoxine-dependent seizures: New genetic and biochemical clues to help with diagnosis and treatment. Curr Opin Neurol 19 (2006) 148-153
82. Wang H.S., Kuo M.F., Chou M.L., et al. Pyridoxal phosphate is better than pyridoxine for controlling idiopathic intractable epilepsy. Arch Dis Child 90 (2005) 512-515
83. Yoshii A., Takeoka M., Kelly P.J., and Krishnamoorthy K.S. Focal status epilepticus as atypical presentation of pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy. J Child Neurol 20 (2005) 696-698
84. Goutieres F., and Aicardi J. Atypical presentations of pyridoxine-dependent seizures: A treatable cause of intractable epilepsy in infants. Ann Neurol 17 (1985) 117-120
85. Chou M.L., Wang H.S., Hung P.C., Sun P.C., and Huang S.C. Late-onset pyridoxine-dependent seizures: Report of two cases. Zh Min Guo Xiao Er Ke Yi Xue Hui Za Zhi 36 (1995) 434-437
86. Yoshikawa H., Abe T., and Oda Y. Pyridoxine-dependent seizures in an older child. J Child Neurol 14 (1999) 687-690
87. Freeman J.M., Kossoff E.H., and Hartman A.L. The ketogenic diet: One decade later. Pediatrics 119 (2007) 535-543
88. Robakis T.K., and Hirsch L.J. Literature review, case report, and expert discussion of prolonged refractory status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care 4 (2006) 35-46
89. Okumura A., Tsuji T., Kato T., Natsume J., Negoro T., and Watanabe K. ACTH therapy for generalized seizures other than spasms. Seizure 15 (2006) 469-475
90. Verhelst H., Boon P., Buyse G., et al. Steroids in intractable childhood epilepsy: Clinical experience and review of the literature. Seizure 14 (2005) 412-421
91. Yang X.F., DDuffy D.W., Morley R.E., and Rothman S.M. Neocortical seizure termination by focal cooling: Temperature dependence and automated seizure detection. Epilepsia 43 (2002) 240-245
92. Schmitt F.C., Buchheim K., Meierkord H., and Holtkamp M. Anticonvulsant properties of hypothermia in experimental status epilepticus. Neurobiol Dis 23 (2006) 689-696
93. Karkar K.M., Garcia P.A., Bateman L.M., Smyth M.D., Barbaro N.M., and Berger M. Focal cooling suppresses spontaneous epileptiform activity without changing the cortical motor threshold. Epilepsia 43 (2002) 932-935
94. Orlowski J.P., Erenberg G., Lueders J., and Cruse R.P. Hypothermia and barbiturate coma for refractory status epilepticus. Crit Care Med 12 (1984) 367-372
95. Sackeim H.A. The anticonvulsant hypothesis of the mechanisms of action of ECT: Current status. J Ect 15 (1999) 5-26
96. Weiner R.D., Coffet C.E., and Fochtmann L. The practice of ECT: Recommendations for treatment, training and privileging. 2nd ed (2001), American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC
97. Griesemer D.A., Kellner C.H., Beale M.D., and Smith G.M. Electroconvulsive therapy for treatment of intractable seizures. Initial findings in two children. Neurology 49 (1997) 1389-1392
98. Carrasco Gonzalez M.D., Palomar M., and Rovira R. Electroconvulsive therapy for status epilepticus. Ann Intern Med 127 (1997) 247-248
99. Lisanby S.H., Bazil C.W., Resor S.R., Nobler M.S., Finck D.A., and Sackeim H.A. ECT in the treatment of status epilepticus. J Ect 17 (2001) 210-215
100. Schrader L.M., Stern J.M., Wilson C.L., et al. Low frequency electrical stimulation through subdural electrodes in a case of refractory status epilepticus. Clin Neurophysiol 117 (2006) 781-788
101. Ng Y.T., Kerrigan J.F., and Rekate H.L. Neurosurgical treatment of status epilepticus. J Neurosurg 105 (2006) 378-381
102. Alexopoulos A., Lachhwani D.K., Gupta A., et al. Resective surgery to treat refractory status epilepticus in children with focal epileptogenesis. Neurology 64 (2005) 567-570
103. Mohamed I.S., Otsubo H., Donner E., et al. Magnetoencephalography for surgical treatment of refractory status epilepticus. Acta Neurol Scand 115 (2007) 29-36
104. D'Giano C.H., Del C.G.M., Pomata H., and Rabinowicz A.L. Treatment of refractory partial status epilepticus with multiple subpial transection: Case report. Seizure 10 (2001) 382-385
105. Ng Y.T., Kim H.L., and Wheless J.W. Successful neurosurgical treatment of childhood complex partial status epilepticus with focal resection. Epilepsia 44 (2003) 468-471
106. Ma X., Liporace J., O'Connor M.J., and Sperling M.R. Neurosurgical treatment of medically intractable status epilepticus. Epilepsy Res 46 (2001) 33-38
107. Duane D.C., Ng Y.T., Rekate H.L., Chung S., Bodensteiner J.B., and Kerrigan J.F. Treatment of refractory status epilepticus with hemispherectomy. Epilepsia 45 (2004) 1001-1004
108. Vossler D.G., Lee J.K., and Ko T.S. Treatment of seizures in subcortical laminar heterotopia with corpus callosotomy and lamotrigine. J Child Neurol 14 (1999) 282-288
109. Winston K.R., Levisohn P., Miller B.R., and Freeman J. Vagal nerve stimulation for status epilepticus. Pediatr Neurosurg 34 (2001) 190-192
110. Rossetti A.O., Logroscino G., and Bromfield E.B. Refractory status epilepticus: Effect of treatment aggressiveness on prognosis. Arch Neurol 62 (2005) 1698-1702
111. Krishnamurthy K.B., and Drislane F.W. Depth of EEG suppression and outcome in barbiturate anesthetic treatment for refractory status epilepticus. Epilepsia 40 (1999) 759-762
112. Sahin M., Menache C.C., Holmes G.L., and Riviello J.J. Outcome of severe refractory status epilepticus in children. Epilepsia 42 (2001) 1461-1467
113. Kaplan P.W. Assessing the outcomes in patients with nonconvulsive status epilepticus: Nonconvulsive status epilepticus is underdiagnosed, potentially overtreated, and confounded by comorbidity. J Clin Neurophysiol 16 (1999) 341-353
114. Kaplan P.W. No, some types of nonconvulsive status epilepticus cause little permanent neurologic sequelae (or: "The cure may be worse than the disease"). Neurophysiol Clin 30 (2000) 377-382
115. O'Regan M.E., and Brown J.K. Serum neuron specific enolase: A marker for neuronal dysfunction in children with continuous EEG epileptiform activity. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2 (1998) 193-197
116. Young G.B., Jordan K.G., and Doig D.S. An assessment of nonconvulsive seizures in the intensive care unit using continuous EEG monitoring: An investigation of variables associated with mortality. Neurology 47 (1996) 83-89
117. Muayqil T., Rowe B.H., and Ahmed S.N. Treatment adherence and outcomes in the management of convulsive status epilepticus in the emergency room. Epileptic Disord 9 (2007) 43-50
118. Cascino G.D., Hesdorffer D., Logroscino G., and Hauser W.A. Treatment of nonfebrile status epilepticus in Rochester, Minn, from 1965 through 1984. Mayo Clin Proc 76 (2001) 39-41
119. Baysun S., Aydin O.F., Atmaca E., and Gurer Y.K. A comparison of buccal midazolam and rectal diazepam for the acute treatment of seizures. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 44 (2005) 771-776
120. McIntyre J., Robertson S., Norris E., et al. Safety and efficacy of buccal midazolam versus rectal diazepam for emergency treatment of seizures in children: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 366 (2005) 205-210
121. Scott R.C., Besag F.M., and Neville B.G. Buccal midazolam and rectal diazepam for treatment of prolonged seizures in childhood and adolescence: A randomised trial. Lancet 353 (1999) 623-626
122. O'Dell C., Shinnar S., Ballaban-Gil K.R., et al. Rectal diazepam gel in the home management of seizures in children. Pediatr Neurol 33 (2005) 166-172