Recent insights in the development of organ damage caused by hypertension

Acta Cardiologica

Volumn 59, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 369-381

  Persu, Alexandre ^a   De Plaen, Jean François ^a  

^a CLINIQUES UNIVERSITAIRES SAINT LUC   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Blood pressure; Cardiovascular risk; Hypertension; Target organ damage

Indexed keywords

ANGIOTENSIN 1 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; BRAIN NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE; CELL ADHESION MOLECULE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR;

AMBULATORY MONITORING; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE THERAPY; ARTERY INTIMA PROLIFERATION; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT; BLOOD PRESSURE MONITORING; BRAIN INFARCTION; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; DISEASE MARKER; DRUG CHOICE; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; FOLLOW UP; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE HYPERTROPHY; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; KIDNEY FAILURE; META ANALYSIS; MICROALBUMINURIA; ORGAN INJURY; PATIENT CODING; PHENOTYPE; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; PULSE WAVE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; VASCULARIZATION; WHITE MATTER;

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS; BLOOD PRESSURE; BLOOD PRESSURE MONITORING, AMBULATORY; BRAIN DISEASES; EYE DISEASES; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HEART DISEASES; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; KIDNEY DISEASES;

EID: 4043133263     PISSN: 00015385     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2143/AC.59.4.2005202     Document Type: Review

References (154)

1. 2003 European Society of Hypertension-European Society of Cardiology guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. J Hypertens 2003; 21: 1011-53.
2. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL Jr, Materson BJ, Oparil S, Wright JT Jr, Roccella EJ. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure; National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee: The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA 2003; 289(19): 2560-72.
3. Cuspidi C, Ambrosioni E, Mancia G, Pessina AC, Trimarco B, Zanchetti A. Role of echocardiography and carotid ultrasonography in stratifying risk in patients with essential hypertension. J Hypertens 2002; 20: 1307-14.
4. Kario K, Pickering TG. Special measures of end-organ damage. In: Mancia G, Chalmers J, Julius S, Saruta T, Weber M, Ferrari A, Wilkinson I, eds. Manual of Hypertension. Churchill Livingstone, London, 2002: 283-304.
5. Pontremoli R, Leoncini G, Viazzi F, Parodi D, Ratto E, Vettoretti S, Ravera M, Tomolillo C, Deferrari G. Cardiovascular and renal risk assessment as a guide for treatment in primary hypertension. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004; 15 suppl 1: S34-36.
6. Kenchaiah S, Pfeffer MA. Cardiac remodeling in systemic hypertension. Med Clin North Am 2004; 88: 115-30.
7. Fagard R, Lijnen P, Staessen J, Thijs L, Amery A. Mechanical and other factors relating to left ventricular hypertrophy. Blood Press Supp 1994; 1: 5-10.
8. Agabiti-Rosei E, Muiesan ML. Hypertensive left ventricular hypertrophy: pathophysiological and clinical issues. Blood Press 2001; 10: 288-98.
9. Fagard R, Staessen J, Thijs L, Amery A. Multiple standardized clinic blood pressures may predict left ventricular mass as well as ambulatory monitoring. A meta-analysis of comparative studies. Am J Hypertens 1995; 8: 533-40.
10. Levy D. Left ventricular hypertrophy. Epidemiological insights from the Framingham Heart Study. Drugs 1988; 35 suppl 5: 1-5.
11. Levy D, Garrison RJ, Savage DD, Kannel WB, Castelli WP. Prognostic implications of echocardiographically determined left ventricular mass in the Framingham Heart Study. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 1561-6.
12. Muiesan ML, Salvetti M, Rizzoni D, Castellano M, Donato F, Agabiti-Rosei E. Association of change in left ventricular mass with prognosis during long-term antihypertensive treatment. J Hypertens 1995; 13: 1091-5.
13. Koren MJ, Ulin RJ, Koren AT, Laragh JH, Devereux RB. Left ventricular mass change during treatment and outcome in patients with essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2002; 15: 1021-8.
14. Verdecchia P, Angeli F, Borgioni C, Gattobigio R, de Simone G, Devereux RB, Porcellati C. Changes in cardiovascular risk by reduction of left ventricular mass in hypertension: a meta-analysis. Am J Hypertens 2003; 16: 895-9.
15. Dahlof B, Pennert K, Hansson L. Reversal of left ventricular hypertrophy in hypertensive patients. A metaanalysis of 109 treatment studies. Am J Hypertens 1992; 5: 95-110.
16. Schmieder RE, Martus P, Klingbeil A. Reversal of left ventricular hypertrophy in essential hypertension. A meta-analysis of randomized double-blind studies. JAMA 1996; 275: 1507-13.
17. Sheridan DJ. Regression of left ventricular hypertrophy: do antihypertensive classes differ? J Hypertens Suppl 2000; 18: S21-27.
18. Klingbeil AU, Schneider M, Martus P, Messerli FH, Schmieder RE. A meta-analysis of the effects of treatment on left ventricular mass in essential hypertension. Am J Med 2003; 115: 41-6.
19. Dahlof B, Devereux RB, Kjeldsen SE, Julius S, Beevers G, de Faire U, Fyhrquist F, Ibsen H, Kristiansson K, Lederballe-Pedersen O, Lindholm LH, Nieminen MS, Omvik P, Oparil S, Wedel H. LIFE Study Group. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the Losartan Intervention For Endpoint reduction in hypertension study (LIFE): a randomised trial against atenolol. Lancet 2002; 359: 995-1003.
20. Casale PN, Devereux RB, Alonso DR, Campo E, Kligfield P. Improved sex-specific criteria of left ventricular hypertrophy for clinical and computer interpretation of electrocardiograms: validation with autopsy findings. Circulation 1987; 75: 565-72.
21. Schillaci G, Verdecchia P, Borgioni C, Ciucci A, Guerrieri M, Zampi I, Battistelli M, Bartoccini C, Porcellati C. Improved electrocardiographic diagnosis of left ventricular hypertrophy. Am J Cardio 1994; 74: 714-9.
22. Kohno I, Takusagawa M, Yin D, Okutani M, Mochizuki Y, Sano S, Ishihara T, Ishii H, Ijiri H, Komori S, Tamura K. QT dispersion in dipper- and nondipper-type hypertension. Am J Hypertens 1998; 11: 280-5.
23. Tomiyama H, Doba N, Fu Y, Kushiro T, Hisaki R, Shinozaki Y, Kanmatsuse K, Kajiwara N, Yoshida H, Hinohara S. Left ventricular geometric patterns and QT dispersion in borderline and mild hypertension: their evolution and regression. Am J Hypertens 1998; 11: 286-92.
24. Devereux RB, Wallerson DC, de Simone G, Ganau A, Roman MJ. Evaluation of left ventricular hypertrophy by M-mode echocardiography in patients and experimental animals. Am J Card Imaging 1994; 8: 291-304.
25. Devereux RB, Roman MJ. Ultrasonic techniques for the evaluation of hypertension. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 1994; 3: 644-51.
26. Slama M, Susic D, Varagic J, Frohlich ED. Diastolic dysfunction in hypertension. Curr Opin Cardiol 2002; 17: 368-73.
27. Krishnan P, Ventura HO, Uber PA, Arcement LM, Mehra MR. Treatment of hypertension for patients with diastolic dysfunction. Curr Opin Cardiol 2003; 18: 272-7.
28. Gosse P, Jullien V, Jarnier P, Lemetayer P, Clementy J. Left ventricular filling in the hypertensive patient: long-term course and influence of treatment. Clin Cardiol 1999; 22: 472-6.
29. Devereux RB, Pini R, Aurigemma GP, Roman MJ. Measurement of left ventricular mass: methodology and expertise. J Hypertens 1997; 15: 801-9.
30. Koren MJ, Devereux RB, Casale PN, Savage DD, Laragh JH. Relation of left ventricular mass and geometry to morbidity and mortality in uncomplicated essential hypertension. Ann Intern Med 1991; 114: 345-52.
31. Bottini PB, Carr AA, Prisant LM, Flickinger FW, Allison JD, Gottdiener JS. Magnetic resonance imaging compared to echocardiography to assess left ventricular mass in the hypertensive patient. Am J Hypertens 1995; 8: 221-8.
32. Missouris CG, Forbat SM, Singer DR, Markandu ND, Underwood R, MacGregor GA. Echocardiography overestimates left ventricular mass: a comparative study with magnetic resonance imaging in patients with hypertension. J Hypertens 1996; 14: 1005-10.
33. Kondos GT, Hoff JA, Sevrukov A, Daviglus ML, Daviglus ML, Garside DB, Devries SS, Chomka EV, Liu K. Electron-beam tomography coronary artery calcium and cardiac events: a 37-month follow-up of 5635 initially asymptomatic low- to intermediate-risk adults. Circulation 2003; 107: 2571-6.
34. Greenland P, LaBree L, Azen SP, Doherty TM, Detrano RC. Coronary artery calcium score combined with Framingham score for risk prediction in asymptomatic individuals. JAMA 2004; 291: 210-5.
35. Raggi P, James G. Coronary calcium screening and coronary risk stratification. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2004; 6: 107-11.
36. Kohno M, Horio T, Yokokawa K, Murakawa K, Yasunari K, Akioka K, Tahara A, Toda I, Takeuchi K, Kurihara N. Brain natriuretic peptide as a cardiac hormone in essential hypertension. Am J Med 1992; 92: 29-34.
37. Kario K, Nishikimi T, Yoshihara F, Takishita S, Yamaoka R, Matsuo T, Matuso H, Mitsuhashi T, Shimada K, Kangawa K. Plasma levels of natriuretic peptides and adrenomedullin in elderly hypertensive patients: relationships to 24 h blood pressure. J Hypertens 1998; 16: 1253-9.
38. Bonow RO. New insights into the cardiac natriuretic peptides. Circulation 1996; 93: 1946-50.
39. Nishikimi T, Yoshihara F, Morimoto A, Ishikawa K, Ishimitsu T, Saito Y, Kangawa K, Matsuo H, Omae T, Matsuoka H. Relationship between left ventricular geometry and natriuretic peptide levels in essential hypertension. Hypertension 1996; 28: 22-30.
40. Perneger TV, Nieto FJ, Whelton PK, Klag MJ, Comstock GW, Szklo M. A prospective study of blood pressure and serum creatinine. Results from the 'Clue' Study and the ARIC Study. JAMA 1993; 269: 488-93.
41. Vupputuri S, Batuman V, Muntner P, Bazzano LA, Lefante JJ, Whelton PK, He J. Effect of blood pressure on early decline in kidney function among hypertensive men. Hypertension 2003; 42: 1144-9.
42. Perry HM Jr, Miller JP, Fornoff JR, Baty JD, Sambhi MP, Rutan G, Moskowitz DW, Carmody SE. Early predictors of 15-year end-stage renal disease in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 1995; 25: 587-94.
43. Klag MJ, Whelton PK, Randall BL, Neaton JD, Brancati FL, Ford CE, Shulman NB, Stamler J. Blood pressure and end-stage renal disease in men. N Engl J Med 1996; 334: 13-8.
44. Luft FC. Hypertensive nephrosclerosis - a cause of end-stage renal disease? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2000; 15: 1515-7.
45. Ljungman S. The kidney as a target of hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep 1999; 1: 164-9.
46. Zucchelli P, Zuccala A. Primary hypertension-how does it cause renal failure? Nephrol Dial Transplant 1994; 9: 223-5.
47. Sarnak MJ, Levey AS, Schoolwerth AC, Coresh J, Culleton B, Hamm LL, McCullough PA, Kasiske BL, Kelepouris E, Klag MJ, Parfrey P, Pfeffer M, Raij L, Spinosa DJ, Wilson PW. Kidney disease as a risk factor for development of cardiovascular disease. Hypertension 2003; 42: 1050-65.
48. Levey AS, Bosch JP, Lewis JB, Greene T, Rogers N, Roth D. A more accurate method to estimate glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine: a new prediction equation. MDRD Study Group. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130: 461-70.
49. Leoncini G, Viazzi F, Parodi D, Vettoretti S, Ratto E, Ravera M, Tomolillo C, Del Sette M, Bezante GP, Deferrari G, Pontremoli R. Mild renal dysfunction and subclinical cardiovascular damage in primary hypertension. Hypertension 2003; 42: 14-8.
50. Palatini P. Microalbuminuria in hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep 2003; 5: 208-14.
51. Mogensen CE. Microalbuminuria and hypertension with focus on type 1 and type 2 diabetes. J Intern Med 2003; 254: 45-66.
52. Bigazzi R, Bianchi S, Baldari D, Campese VM. Microalbuminuria predicts cardiovascular events and renal insufficiency in patients with essential hypertension. J Hypertens 1998; 16: 1325-33.
53. Pontremoli R, Leoncini G, Ravera M, Viazzi F, Vettoretti S, Ratto E, Parodi D, Tomolillo C, Deferrari G. Microalbuminuria, cardiovascular, and renal risk in primary hypertension. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002; 13 suppl 3: S169-172.
54. Jensen JS, Feldt-Rasmussen B, Strandgaard S, Schroll M, Borch-Johnsen K. Arterial hypertension, microalbuminuria, and risk of ischemic heart disease. Hypertension 2000; 35: 898-903.
55. Gerstein HC, Mann JF, Yi Q, Zinman B, Dinneen SF, Hoogwerf B, Halle JP, Young J, Rashkow A, Joyce C, Nawaz S, Yusuf S. HOPE Study Investigators. Albuminuria and risk of cardiovascular events, death, and heart failure in diabetic and nondiabetic individuals. JAMA 2001; 286: 421-6.
56. Leoncini G, Sacchi G, Ravera M, Viazzi F, Ratto E, Vettoretti S, Parodi D, Bezante GP, Del Sette M, Deferrari G, Pontremoli R. Microalbuminuria is an integrated marker of subclinical organ damage in primary hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 2002; 16: 399-404.
57. Gerstein HC, Mann JF, Pogue J, Dinneen SF, Halle JP, Hoogwerf B, Joyce C, Rashkow A, Young J, Zinman B, Yusuf S. Prevalence and determinants of microalbuminuria in high-risk diabetic and nondiabetic patients in the Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study. The HOPE Study Investigators. Diabetes Care 2000; 23 suppl 2: B35-39.
58. Hillege HL, Fidler V, Diercks GF, van Gilst WH, de Zeeuw D, van Veldhuisen DJ, Gans RO, Janssen WM, Grobbee DE, de Jong PE. Urinary albumin excretion predicts cardiovascular and noncardiovascular mortality in general population. Circulation 2002; 106: 1777-82.
59. Agrawal B, Wolf K, Berger A, Luft FC. Effect of antihypertensive treatment on qualitative estimates of microalbuminuria. J Hum Hypertens 1996; 10: 551-5.
60. Alli C, Lombardo M, Zanni D, Agrati AM, Cassani M, Granata S. Albuminuria and transferrinuria in essential hypertension. Effects of antihypertensive therapy. Am J Hypertens 1996; 9: 1068-76.
61. Viberti G. Regression of albuminuria: latest evidence for a new approach. J Hypertens 2003; 21 suppl 3: S24-28.
62. Palatini P, Graniero GR, Canali C, Santonastaso M, Mos L, Piccolo D, D'Este D, Berton G, Zanata G, De Venuto G, et al. Relationship between albumin excretion rate, ambulatory blood pressure and left ventricular hypertrophy in mild hypertension. J Hypertens 1995; 13: 1796-800.
63. Kario K, Matsuo T, Kobayashi H, Matsuo M, Sakata T, Miyata T. Activation of tissue factor-induced coagulation and endothelial cell dysfunction in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients with microalbuminuria. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1995; 15: 1114-20.
64. Marinakis AG, Vyssoulis GP, Michaelides AP, Karpanou EA, Cokkinos DV, Toutouzas PK. Impact of abnormal nocturnal blood pressure fall on vascular function. Am J Hypertens 2003; 16: 209-13.
65. Kario K, Matsuo T, Kobayashi H, Matsuo M, Sakata T, Miyata T, Shimada K. Factor VII hyperactivity and endothelial cell damage are found in elderly hypertensives only when concomitant with microalbuminuria. Arterioscler Thromb Vase Biol 1996; 16: 455-61.
66. Bammer R. Basic principles of diffusion-weighted imaging. Eur J Radiol 2003; 45: 169-84.
67. Chalela JA, Kang DW, Warach S. Multiple cerebral microbleeds: MRI marker of a diffuse hemorrhage-prone state. J Neuroimaging 2004; 14: 54-7.
68. Gass A, Ay H, Szabo K, Koroshetz WJ. Diffusion-weighted MRI for the "small stuff": the details of acute cerebral ischaemia. Lancet Neurol 2004; 3: 39-45.
69. Dickinson CJ. Strokes and their relationship to hypertension. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2003; 12: 91-6.
70. Manolio TA, Olson J, Longstreth WT. Hypertension and cognitive function: pathophysiologic effects of hypertension on the brain. Curr Hypertens Rep 2003; 5: 255-61.
71. Kario K, Matsuo T, Kobayashi H, Asada R, Matsuo M. 'Silent' cerebral infarction is associated with hypercoagulability, endothelial cell damage, and high Lp(a) levels in elderly Japanese. Arterioscler Thromb Vase Biol 1996; 16: 734-41.
72. Vermeer SE, Den Heijer T, Koudstaal PJ, Oudkerk M, Hofman A, Breteler MM. Incidence and risk factors of silent brain infarcts in the population-based Rotterdam Scan Study. Stroke 2003; 34: 392-6.
73. Kobayashi S, Okada K, Koide H, Bokura H, Yamaguchi S. Subcortical silent brain infarction as a risk factor for clinical stroke. Stroke 1997; 28: 1932-9.
74. Bernick C, Kuller L, Dulberg C, Longstreth WT Jr, Manolio T, Beauchamp N, Price T. Cardiovascular Health Study Collaborative Reseach Group. Silent MRI infarcts and the risk of future stroke: the cardiovascular health study. Neurology 2001; 57: 1222-9.
75. Vermeer SE, Prins ND, den Heijer T, Hofman A, Koudstaal PJ, Breteler MM. Silent brain infarcts and the risk of dementia and cognitive decline. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 1215-22.
76. Longstreth WT Jr, Manolio TA, Arnold A, Burke GL, Bryan N, Jungreis CA, Enright PL, O'Leary D, Fried L. Clinical correlates of white matter findings on cranial magnetic resonance imaging of 3301 elderly people. The Cardiovascular Health Study. Stroke 1996; 27: 1274-82.
77. Vermeer SE, Hollander M, van Dijk EJ, Hofman A, Koudstaal PJ, Breteler MM. Silent brain infarcts and white matter lesions increase stroke risk in the general population: the Rotterdam Scan Study. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 1215-22.
78. Roob G, Schmidt R, Kapeller P, Lechner A, Hartung HP, Fazekas F. MRI evidence of past cerebral microbleeds in a healthy elderly population. Neurology 1999; 52: 991-4.
79. Lee SH, Bae HJ, Yoon BW, Kim H, Kim DE, Roh JK. Low concentration of serum total cholesterol is associated with multifocal signal loss lesions on gradient-echo magnetic resonance imaging: analysis of risk factors for multifocal signal loss lesions. Stroke 2002; 33: 2845-9.
80. Kato H, Izumiyama M, Izumiyama K, Takahashi A, Itoyama Y. Silent cerebral microbleeds on T2*-weighted MRI: correlation with stroke subtype, stroke recurrence, and leukoaraiosis. Stroke 2002; 33: 1536-40.
81. Wong KS, Mok V, Lam WW, Kay R, Tang A, Chan YL, Woo J. Aspirin-associated intracerebral hemorrhage: clinical and radiologic features. Neurology 2000; 54: 2298-301.
82. Kario K, Matsuo T, Kobayashi H, Imiya M, Matsuo M, Shimada K. Nocturnal fall of blood pressure and silent cerebrovascular damage in elderly hypertensive patients. Advanced silent cerebrovascular damage in extreme dippers. Hypertension 1996; 27: 130-5.
83. Hoshide Y, Kario K, Schwartz JE, Hoshide S, Pickering TG, Shimada K. Incomplete benefit of antihypertensive therapy on stroke reduction in older hypertensives with abnormal nocturnal blood pressure dipping (extreme-dippers and reverse-dippers). Am J Hypertens 2002; 15: 844-50.
84. Skoog I, Lernfelt B, Landahl S, Palmertz B, Andreasson LA, Nilsson L, Persson G, Oden A, Svanborg A. 15-year longitudinal study of blood pressure and dementia. Lancet 1996; 347: 1141-5.
85. Kilander L, Nyman H, Boberg M, Hansson L, Lithell H. Hypertension is related to cognitive impairment: a 20-year follow-up of 999 men. Hypertension 1998; 31: 780-6.
86. Wong TY, Klein R, Sharrett AR, Nieto FJ, Boland LL, Couper DJ, Mosley TH, Klein BE, Hubbard LD, Szklo M. Retinal microvascular abnormalities and cognitive impairment in middle-aged persons: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Stroke 2002; 33: 1487-92.
87. Forette F, Seux ML, Staessen JA, Thijs L, Birkenhager WH, Babarskiene MR, Babeanu S, Bossini A, Gil-Extremera B, Girerd X, Laks T, Lilov E, Moisseyev V, Tuomilehto J, Vanhanen H, Webster J, Yodfat Y, Fagard R. Prevention of dementia in randomised double-blind placebo-controlled Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) trial. Lancet 1998; 352: 1347-51.
88. Forette F, Seux ML, Staessen JA, Thijs L, Babarskiene MR, Babeanu S, Bossini A, Fagard R, Gil-Extremera B, Laks T, Kobalava Z, Sarti C, Tuomilehto J, Vanhanen H, Webster J, Yodfat Y, Birkenhager WH. Systolic Hypertension in Europe Investigators. The prevention of dementia with antihypertensive treatment: new evidence from the Syst-Eur study. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162: 2046-52.
89. Lithell H, Hansson L, Skoog I, Elmfeldt D, Hofman A, Olofsson B, Trenkwalder P, Zanchetti A. SCOPE Study Group. The Study on Cognition and Prognosis in the Elderly (SCOPE): principal results of a randomized double-blind intervention trial. J Hypertens 2003; 21: 875-86.
90. Wolffsohn JS, Hurcomb PG. Hypertension and the eye. Curr Hypertens Rep 2002; 4: 471-6.
91. Chatterjee S, Chattopadhya S, Hope-Ross M, Lip PL. Hypertension and the eye: changing perspectives. J Hum Hypertens 2002; 16: 667-75.
92. Stanton AV, Mullaney P, Mee F, O'Brien ET, O'Malley K. A method of quantifying retinal microvascular alterations associated with blood pressure and age. J Hypertens 1995; 13: 41-8.
93. Cuspidi C, Macca G, Salerno M, Michev L, Fusi V, Severgnini B, Corti C, Meani S, Magrini F, Zanchetti. Evaluation of target organ damage in arterial hypertension: which role for qualitative funduscopic examination? Ital Heart J 2001; 2: 702-6.
94. King LA, Stanton AV, Sever PS, Thom SA, Hughes AD. Arteriolar length-diameter (L:D) ratio: a geometric parameter of the retinal vasculature diagnostic of hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 1996; 10: 417-8.
95. Serne EH, Gans RO, ter Maaten JC, Tangelder GJ, Donker AJ, Stehouwer CD. Impaired skin capillary recruitment in essential hypertension is caused by both functional and structural capillary rarefaction. Hypertension 2001; 38: 238-42.
96. Simon A, Gariepy J, Chironi G, Megnien JL, Levenson J. Intima-media thickness: a new tool for diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular risk. J Hypertens 2002; 20: 159-69.
97. Arnett DK, Tyroler HA, Burke G, Hutchinson R, Howard G, Heiss G. Hypertension and subclinical carotid artery atherosclerosis in blacks and whites. The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. ARIC Investigators. Arch Intern Med 1996; 156: 1983-9.
98. Bots ML, Hoes AW, Koudstaal PJ, Hofman A, Grobbee DE. Common carotid intima-media thickness and risk of stroke and myocardial infarction: the Rotterdam Study. Circulation 1997; 96: 1432-7.
99. Hodis HN, Mack WJ, LaBree L, Selzer RH, Liu CR, Liu CH, Azen SP. The role of carotid arterial intima-media thickness in predicting clinical coronary events. Ann Intern Med 1998; 128: 262-9.
100. O'Leary DH, Polak JF, Kronmal RA, Manolio TA, Burke GL, Wolfson SK Jr. Carotid-artery intima and media thickness as a risk factor for myocardial infarction and stroke in older adults. Cardiovascular Health Study Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 14-22.
101. Girerd X, Giannattasio C, Moulin C, Safar M, Mancia G, Laurent S. Regression of radial artery wall hypertrophy and improvement of carotid artery compliance after long-term antihypertensive treatment in elderly patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 31: 1064-73.
102. Forbat SM, Naoumova RP, Sidhu PS, Neuwirth C, MacMahon M, Thompson GR, Underwood SR. The effect of cholesterol reduction with fluvastatin on aortic compliance, coronary calcification and carotid intimal-medial thickness: a pilot study. J Cardiovasc Risk 1998; 5: 1-10.
103. London GM, Cohn JN. Prognostic application of arterial stiffness: task forces. Am J Hypertens 2002; 15: 754-8.
104. Benetos A, Waeber B, Izzo J, Mitchell G, Resnick L, Asmar R, Safar M. Influence of age, risk factors, and cardiovascular and renal disease on arterial stiffness: clinical applications. Am J Hypertens 2002; 15: 1101-8.
105. Davies JI, Struthers AD. Pulse wave analysis and pulse wave velocity: a critical review of their strengths and weaknesses. J Hypertens 2003; 21: 463-72.
106. Blacher J, Asmar R, Djane S, London GM, Safar ME. Aortic pulse wave velocity as a marker of cardiovascular risk in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 1999; 33: 1111-7.
107. Laurent S, Boutouyrie P, Asmar R, Gautier I, Laloux B, Guize L, Ducimetiere P, Benetos A. Aortic stiffness is an independent predictor of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 2001; 37: 1236-41.
108. Blacher J, Safar ME, Guerin AP, Pannier B, Marchais SJ, London GM. Aortic pulse wave velocity index and mortality in end-stage renal disease. Kidney Int 2003; 63: 1852-60.
109. Meaume S, Benetos A, Henry OF, Rudnichi A, Safar ME. Aortic pulse wave velocity predicts cardiovascular mortality in subjects > 70 years of age. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2001; 21: 2046-50.
110. Nichols WW, Singh BM. Augmentation index as a measure of peripheral vascular disease state. Curr Opin Cardiol 2002; 17: 543-51.
111. Yasmin, Brown MJ. Similarities and differences between augmentation index and pulse wave velocity in the assessment of arterial stiffness. QJM 1999; 92: 595-600.
112. de Simone G, Roman MJ, Koren MJ, Mensah GA, Ganau A, Devereux RB. Stroke volume/pulse pressure ratio and cardiovascular risk in arterial hypertension. Hypertension 1999; 33: 800-5.
113. Hugue CJ, Safar ME, Aliefierakis MC, Asmar RG, London GM. The ratio between ankle and brachial systolic pressure in patients with sustained uncomplicated essential hypertension. Clin Sci (Lond) 1988; 74: 179-82.
114. Newman AB, Shemanski L, Manolio TA, Cushman M, Mittelmark M, Polak JF, Powe NR, Siscovick D. Ankle-arm index as a predictor of cardiovascular disease and mortality in the Cardiovascular Health Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1999; 19: 538-45.
115. Spieker LE, Noll G, Ruschitzka FT, Maier W, Luscher TF. Working under pressure: the vascular endothelium in arterial hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 2000; 14: 617-30.
116. Taddei S, Salvetti A. Endothelial dysfunction in essential hypertension: clinical implications. J Hypertens 2002; 20: 1671-4.
117. Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Gooch VM, Spiegelhalter DJ, Miller OI, Sullivan ID, Lloyd JK, Deanfield JE. Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis. Lancet 1992; 340: 1111-5.
118. Celermajer DS. Testing endothelial function using ultrasound. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1998; 32 suppl 3: S29-32.
119. Buemi M, Allegra A, Aloisi C, Corica F, Alonci A, Ruello A, Montalto G, Frisina N. Cold pressor test raises serum concentrations of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and E-selectin in normotensive and hypertensive patients. Hypertension 1997; 30: 845-7.
120. Krieglstein CF, Granger DN. Adhesion molecules and their role in vascular disease. Am J Hypertens 2001; 14: 44S-54S.
121. Schiffrin EL. Beyond blood pressure: the endothelium and atherosclerosis progression. Am J Hypertens 2002; 15: 115S-122S.
122. Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Roitman-Johnson B, Stampfer MJ, Allen J. Plasma concentration of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule I and risks of future myocardial infarction in apparently healthy men. Lancet 1998; 351: 88-92.
123. Malik I, Danesh J, Whincup P, Bhatia V, Papacosta O, Walker M, Lennon L, Thomson A, Haskard D. Soluble adhesion molecules and prediction of coronary heart disease: a prospective study and meta-analysis. Lancet 2001; 358: 971-6.
124. Taddei S, Virdis A, Ghiadoni L, Sudano I, Salvetti A. Antihypertensive drugs and reversing of endothelial dysfunction in hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep 2000; 2: 64-70.
125. Tzemos N, Lim PO, MacDonald TM. Nebivolol reverses endothelial dysfunction in essential hypertension: a randomized, double-blind, crossover study. Circulation 2001; 104: 511-4.
126. Ghiadoni L, Magagna A, Versari D, Kardasz I, Huang Y, Taddei S, Salvetti A. Different effect of antihypertensive drugs on conduit artery endothelial function. Hypertension 2003; 41: 1281-6.
127. Ruilope LM, Schiffrin EL. Blood pressure control and benefits of antihypertensive therapy: does it make a difference which agents we use? Hypertension 2001; 38: 537-42.
128. Kurtz TW. False claims of blood pressure-independent protection by blockade of the renin angiotensin aldosterone system? Hypertension 2003; 41: 193-6.
129. Staessen JA, Wang JG, Thijs L. Cardiovascular prevention and blood pressure reduction: a quantitative overview updated until 1 March 2003. J Hypertens 2003; 21: 1055-76.
130. Mancia G, Parati G. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring and organ damage. Hypertension 2000; 36: 894-900.
131. Persu A, Lambert M, De Plaen JF. Monitoring ambulatoire de la pression artérielle et automesure tensionnelle. Louvain Médical 2003; 121: 241-8.
132. Mancia G, Zanchetti A, Agabiti-Rosei E, Benemio G, De Cesaris R, Fogari R, Pessina A, Porcellati C, Rappelli A, Salvetti A, Trimarco B, Agebiti-Rosei E, Pessino A. Ambulatory blood pressure is superior to clinic blood pressure in predicting treatment-induced regression of left ventricular hypertrophy. Circulation 1997; 95: 1464-70.
133. Redon J, Liao Y, Lozano JV, Miralles A, Pascual JM, Cooper RS. Ambulatory blood pressure and microalbuminuria in essential hypertension: role of circadian variability. J Hypertens 1994; 12: 947-53.
134. Lurbe E, Redon J, Kesani A, Pascual JM, Tacons J, Alvarez V, Batlle D. Increase in nocturnal blood pressure and progression to microalbuminuria in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 797-805.
135. Verdecchia P, Schillaci G, Borgioni C, Ciucci A, Sacchi N, Battistelli M, Guerrieri M, Comparato E, Porcellati C. Gender, day-night blood pressure changes, and left ventricular mass in essential hypertension. Dippers and peakers. Am J Hypertens 1995; 8: 193-6.
136. Hoshide S, Kario K, Hoshide Y, Umeda Y, Hashimoto T, Kunii O, Ojima T, Shimada K. Associations between nondipping of nocturnal blood pressure decrease and cardiovascular target organ damage in strictly selected community-dwelling normotensives. Am J Hypertens 2003; 16: 434-8.
137. Cuspidi C, Meani S, Salerno M, Severgnini B, Fusi V, Corti C, Salerno M, Valerio C, Magrini F, Zanchetti. Cardiovascular target organ damage in essential hypertensives with or without reproducible nocturnal fall in blood pressure. J Hypertens 2004; 22: 273-80.
138. Omboni S, Parati G, Palatini P, Vanasia A, Muiesan ML, Cuspidi C, Mancia G. Reproducibility and clinical value of nocturnal hypotension: prospective evidence from the SAMPLE study. J Hypertens 1998; 16: 733-8.
139. Bhatt DL, James GD, Pickering TG, Devereux RB. Relation of arterial pressure level and variability to left ventricular geometry in normotensive and hypertensive adults. Blood Press Monit 1996; 1: 415-24.
140. Mancia G, Parati G, Hennig M, Flatau B, Omboni S, Glavina F, Costa B, Scherz R, Bond G, Zanchetti A. Relation between blood pressure variability and carotid artery damage in hypertension. J Hypertens 2001; 19: 1981-9.
141. Sander D, Kukla C, Klingelhofer J, Winbeck K, Conrad B. Relationship between circadian blood pressure patterns and progression of early carotid atherosclerosis: A 3-year follow-up study. Circulation 2000; 102: 1536-41.
142. Turnbull F. Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists' Collaboration. Effects of different blood-pressure-lowering regimens on major cardiovascular events: results of prospectively-designed overviews of randomised trials. Lancet 2003; 362: 1527-35.
143. Ruilope LM, Schiffrin EL. Blood pressure control and benefits of antihypertensive therapy: does it make a difference which agents we use? Hypertension 2001; 38: 537-42.
144. Praga M. Slowing the progression of renal failure. Kidney Int Suppl 2002; (80): 18-22.
145. Bielen E, Fagard R, Amery A. The inheritance of left ventricular structure and function assessed by imaging and Doppler echocardiography. Am Heart J 1991; 121: 1743-9.
146. Arnett DK, de las Fuentes L, Broeckel U. Genes for left ventricular hypertrophy. Curr Hypertens Rep 2004; 6: 36-41.
147. Schunkert H, Hense HW, Holmer SR, Stender M, Perz S, Keil U, Lorell BH, Riegger GA. Association between a deletion polymorphism of the angiotensin-converting-enzyme gene and left ventricular hypertrophy. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 1634-8.
148. Nakahara K, Matsushita S, Matsuoka H, Inamatsu T, Nishinaga M, Yonawa M, Aono T, Arai T, Ezaki Y, Orimo H. Insertion/deletion polymorphism in the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene affects heart weight. Circulation 2000; 101: 148-51.
149. Lindpaintner K, Lee M, Larson MG, Rao VS, Pfeffer MA, Ordovas JM, Schaefer EJ, Wilson AF, Wilson PW, Vasan RS, Myers RH, Levy D. Absence of association or genetic linkage between the angiotensin-converting-enzyme gene and left ventricular mass. N Engl J Med 1996; 334: 1023-8.
150. Kuznetsova T, Staessen JA, Wang JG, Gasowski J, Nikitin Y, Ryabikov A, Fagard R. Antihypertensive treatment modulates the association between the D/I ACE gene polymorphism and left ventricular hypertrophy: a meta-analysis. J Hum Hypertens 2000; 14: 447-54.
151. Freedman BI, Spray BJ, Tuttle AB, Buckalew VM Jr. The familial risk of end-stage renal disease in African Americans. Am J Kidney Dis 1993; 21: 387-93.
152. Bergman S, Key BO, Kirk KA, Warnock DG, Rostant SG. Kidney disease in the first-degree relatives of African-Americans with hypertensive end-stage renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis 1996; 27: 341-6.
153. Post WS, Hill MN, Dennison CR, Weiss JL, Gerstenblith G, Blumenthal RS. High prevalence of target organ damage in young, African American inner-city men with hypertension. J Clin Hypertens 2003; 5: 24-30.
154. Ferrari P. Genetics of the mineralocorticoid system in primary hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep 2002; 4: 18-24.