The evaluation of cardiac and peripheral arterial disease in patients with diabetes mellitus

Endocrine Research

Volumn 32, Issue 3-4, 2007, Pages 109-142

  Shen, Rhuna ^a   Wiegers, Susan E ^a   Glaser, Ruchira ^a  

^a HOSPITAL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; BERAPROST; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BEZAFIBRATE; CILOSTAZOL; CLOPIDOGREL; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIPYRIDAMOLE; FIBRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; GEMFIBROZIL; GLUCOSE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; ILOPROST; INSULIN; PENTOXIFYLLINE; POTASSIUM; PROSTAGLANDIN E1; RAMIPRIL; SIMVASTATIN;

ACUTE HEART INFARCTION; ARTERY DISEASE; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL EVALUATION; CLINICAL EXAMINATION; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL STUDY; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMORBIDITY; CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DIET THERAPY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; ELECTROCARDIOGRAM; EXERCISE TEST; HEART DISEASE; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INCIDENCE; INTERMITTENT CLAUDICATION; KINESIOTHERAPY; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SCREENING TEST; SMOKING CESSATION; TRANSLUMINAL CORONARY ANGIOPLASTY; DIABETIC ANGIOPATHY; DISEASE COURSE; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; EVALUATION; MASS SCREENING; METHODOLOGY; PATHOLOGY; PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASE; PRIMARY HEALTH CARE; RISK; RISK REDUCTION;

DIABETES MELLITUS; DIABETIC ANGIOPATHIES; DISEASE PROGRESSION; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; HEART DISEASES; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; MASS SCREENING; PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASES; PRIMARY HEALTH CARE; RISK; RISK REDUCTION BEHAVIOR;

EID: 40349098714     PISSN: 07435800     EISSN: 15324206     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/07435800701743869     Document Type: Review

References (209)

1. Role of cardiovascular risk factors in prevention and treatment of macrovascular disease in diabetes. American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 1989; 2:573-9.
2. Aronson D, Rayfield EJ, Chesebro JH. Mechanisms determining course and outcome of diabetic patients who have had acute myocardial infarction. Ann Intern Med 1997; 126:296-306.
3. Kannel WB, McGee DL. Diabetes and glucose tolerance as risk factors for cardiovascular disease: the Framingham study. Diabetes Care 1979; 2:120-6.
4. Pyorala K, Laakso M, Uusitupa M: Diabetes and atherosclerosis: an epidemiologic view. Diabetes Metab Rev 1987; 3:463-524.
5. Stamler J, Vaccaro O, Neaton JD, Wentworth D. Diabetes, other risk factors, and 12-year cardiovascular mortality for men screened in the multiple risk factor intervention trial. Diabetes Care 1993; 16:434-4.
6. nd ed. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1995:429-48.
7. Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, et al. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet 2004; 364:937-52.
8. Abbott RD, Donahue RP, Kannel WB, Wilson PW. The impact of diabetes on survival following myocardial infarction in men vs women. The Framingham Study. J Am Med Assoc 1988; 260:3456-60.
9. Miettinen H, Lehto S, Salomaa V, et al. Impact of diabetes on mortality after the first myocardial infarction. The FINMONICA Myocardial Infarction Register Study Group. Diabetes Care 1998; 21:69-75.
10. Herlitz J, Karlson BW, Edvardsson N, Emanuelsson H, Hjalmarson A. Prognosis in diabetics with chest pain or other symptoms suggestive of acute myocardial infarction. Cardiology 1992; 80: 237-15.
11. Barbash GI, White HD, Modan M, Van de Werf F. Significance of diabetes mellitus in patients with acute myocardial infarction receiving thrombolytic therapy. Investigators of the International Tissue Plasminogen Activator/Streptokinase Mortality Trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993; 22:707-13.
12. Granger CB, Califf RM, Young S, et al. Outcome of patients with diabetes mellitus and acute myocardial infarction treated with thrombolytic agents. The Thrombolysis and Angioplasty in Myocardial Infarction (TAMI) Study Group. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993; 21:920-5.
13. Hillis LD, Forman S, Braunwald E. Risk stratification before thrombolytic therapy in patients with acute myocardial infarction. The Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction (TIMI) Phase II Co-Investigators. J Am Coll Cardiol 1990; 16:313-5.
14. Klein HH, Hengstenberg C, Peuckert M, Jurgensen R. Comparison of death rates from acute myocardial infarction in a single hospital in two different periods (1977 1978 versus 1988 1989). Am J Cardiol 1993; 71:518-23.
15. Mueller HS, Cohen LS, Braunwald E, et al. Predictors of early morbidity and mortality after thrombolytic therapy of acute myocardial infarction. Analyses of patient subgroups in the Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction (TIMI) trial, phase II. Circulation 1992; 85:1254-64.
16. Murphy JF, Kahn MG, Krone RJ. Prethrombolytic versus thrombolytic era risk stratification of patients with acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 1995; 76:827-9.
17. Herlitz J, Malmberg K, Karlson BW, Ryden L, Hjalmarson A. Mortality and morbidity during a five-year follow-up of diabetics with myocardial infarction. Acta Med Scand 1988; 224:31-8.
18. Jacoby RM, Nesto RW. Acute myocardial infarction in the diabetic patient: pathophysiology, clinical course and prognosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 1992; 20:736-44.
19. Karlson BW, Herlitz J, Hjalmarson A. Prognosis of acute myocardial infarction in diabetic and non- diabetic patients. Diabet Med 1993; 10:449-54.
20. Smith JW, Marcus FI, Serokman R. Prognosis of patients with diabetes mellitus after acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 1984; 54:718-21.
21. Stone PH, Muller JE, Hartwell T, et al. The effect of diabetes mellitus on prognosis and serial left ventricular function after acute myocardial infarction: contribution of both coronary disease and diastolic left ventricular dysfunction to the adverse prognosis. The MILIS Study Group. J Am Coll Cardiol 1989; 14:49-57.
22. Ulvenstam G, Aberg A, Bergstrand R, et al. Long-term prognosis after myocardial infarction in men with diabetes. Diabetes 1985; 34:787-92.
23. Hoff JA, Quinn L, Sevrukov A, et al. The prevalence of coronary artery calcium among diabetic individuals without known coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 41:1008-12.
24. Scognamiglio R, Negut C, Ramondo A, Tiengo A, Avogaro A. Detection of coronary artery disease in asymptomatic patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 47:65-71.
25. Haffner SM, Lehto S, Ronnemaa T, Pyorala K, Laakso M. Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in nondiabetic subjects with and without prior myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1998; 339:229-34.
26. Consensus development conference on the diagnosis of coronary heart disease in people with diabetes: 10-11 February 1998, Miami, Florida. Am Diabetes Assoc. Diabetes Care 1998; 21:1551-9.
27. Barzilay JI, Kronmal RA, Bittner V, Faker E, Evans C, Foster ED. Coronary artery disease and coronary artery bypass grafting in diabetic patients aged > or=65 years (report from the Coronary Artery Surgery Study (CASS] Registry). Am J Cardiol 1994; 74:334-9.
28. Stein B, Weintraub WS, Gebhart SP, et al. Influence of diabetes mellitus on early and late outcome after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty. Circulation 1995; 91:979-89.
29. Vigorito C, Betocchi S, Bonzani G, et al. Severity of coronary artery disease in patients with diabetes mellitus. Angiographic study of 34 diabetic and 120 nondiabetic patients. Am Heart J 1980; 100:782-7.
30. Waller BF, Palumbo PJ, Lie JT, Roberts WC. Status of the coronary arteries at necropsy in diabetes mellitus with onset after age 30 years. Analysis of 229 diabetic patients with and without clinical evidence of coronary heart disease and comparison to 183 control subjects. Am J Med 1980; 69: 498-506.
31. The effects of tissue plasminogen activator, streptokinase, or both on coronary-artery patency, ventricular function, and survival after acute myocardial infarction. The GUSTO Angiographic Investigators. N Engl J Med 1993; 329:1615-22.
32. Muller DW, Topol EJ, Ellis SG, Sigmon KN, Lee K, Califf RM. Multi-vessel coronary artery disease: a key predictor of short-term prognosis after reperfusion therapy for acute myocardial infarction. Thrombolysis and Angioplasty in Myocardial Infarction (TAMI) Study Group. Am Heart J 1991; 121:1042-9.
33. Fuster V, Badimon L, Badimon JJ, Chesebro JH. The pathogenesis of coronary artery disease and the acute coronary syndromes (2). N Engl J Med 1992; 326:310-8.
34. Libby P. Molecular bases of the acute coronary syndromes. Circulation 1995; 91:2844-50.
35. Umans JG, Levi R. Nitric oxide in the regulation of blood flow and arterial pressure. Annu Rev Physiol 1995; 57:771-90.
36. Cohen RA, Vanhoutte PM. Endothelium-dependent hyperpolarization. Beyond nitric oxide and cyclic GMP. Circulation 1995; 92:3337-49.
37. Johnstone MT, Creager SJ, Scales KM, Cusco JA, Lee BK, Creager MA. Impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Circulation 1993; 88:2510-6.
38. Tesfamariam B. Free radicals in diabetic endothelial cell dysfunction. Free Radic Biol Med 1994; 16:383-91.
39. Kannel WB, Hjortland M, Castelli WP. Role of diabetes in congestive heart failure: the Framingham study. Am J Cardiol 1974; 34:29-34.
40. Bertoni AG, Hundley WG, Massing MW, Bonds DE, Burke GL, Goff DC Jr. Heart failure prevalence, incidence, and mortality in the elderly with diabetes. Diabetes Care 2004; 27:699-703.
41. Bertoni AG, Tsai A, Kasper EK, Brancati FL. Diabetes and idiopathic cardiomyopathy: a nation-wide case-control study. Diabetes Care 2003; 26:2791-5.
42. Iribarren C, Karter AJ, Go AS, et al. Glycemic control and heart failure among adult patients with diabetes. Circulation 2001; 103:2668-73.
43. Nichols GA, Gullion CM, Koro CE, Ephross SA, Brown JB. The incidence of congestive heart failure in type 2 diabetes: an update. Diabetes Care 2004; 27:1879-84.
44. Nichols GA, Hillier TA, Erbey JR, Brown JB. Congestive heart failure in type 2 diabetes: prevalence, incidence, and risk factors. Diabetes Care 2001; 24:1614-9.
45. Czyzk A, Krolewski AS, Szablowska S, Alot A, Kopczynski J. Clinical course of myocardial infarction among diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 1980; 3:526-9.
46. Jaffe AS, Spadaro JJ, Schechtman K, Roberts R, Geltman EM, Sobel BE. Increased congestive heart failure after myocardial infarction of modest extent in patients with diabetes mellitus. Am Heart J 1984; 108:31-7.
47. Kouvaras G, Cokkinos D, Spyropoulou M. Increased mortality of diabetics after acute myocardial infarction attributed to diffusely impaired left ventricular performance as assessed by echocardiography. Jpn Heart J 1988; 29:1-9.
48. Lomuscio A, Castagnone M, Vergani D, et al. Clinical correlation between diabetic and non diabetic patients with myocardial infarction. Acta Cardiol 1991; 46:543-54.
49. Malmberg K, Ryden L. Myocardial infarction in patients with diabetes mellitus. Eur Heart J 1988; 9: 259-64.
50. Rytter L, Troelsen S, Beck-Nielsen H. Prevalence and mortality of acute myocardial infarction in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 1985; 8:230-4.
51. Savage MP, Krolewski AS, Kenien GG, Lebeis MP, Christlieb AR, Lewis SM. Acute myocardial infarction in diabetes mellitus and significance of congestive heart failure as a prognostic factor. Am J Cardiol 1988; 62:665-9.
52. Tansey MJ, Opie LH, Kennelly BM. High mortality in obese women diabetics with acute myocardial infarction. Br Med J 1977; 1:1624-6.
53. Yudkin JS, Oswald GA. Determinants of hospital admission and case fatality in diabetic patients with myocardial infarction. Diabetes Care 1988; 11:351-8.
54. Halon DA, Merdler A, Flugelman MY, et al. Late-onset heart failure as a mechanism for adverse long-term outcome in diabetic patients undergoing revascularization (a 13-year report from the Lady Davis Carmel Medical Center registry). Am J Cardiol 2000; 85:1420-6.
55. Barzilay JI, Kronmal RA, Gottdiener JS, et al. The association of fasting glucose levels with congestive heart failure in diabetic adults > or =65 years: the Cardiovascular Health Study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 43:2236-41.
56. Carr AA, Kowey PR, Devereux RB, et al. Hospitalizations for new heart failure among subjects with diabetes mellitus in the RENAAL and LIFE studies. Am J Cardiol 2005; 96:1530-6.
57. Arvan S, Singal K, Knapp R, Vagnucci A. Subclinical left ventricular abnormalities in young diabetics. Chest 1988; 93:1031-4.
58. Vered A, Battler A, Segal P, et al. Exercise-induced left ventricular dysfunction in young men with asymptomatic diabetes mellitus (diabetic cardiomyopathy). Am J Cardiol 1984; 54:633-7.
59. Raev DC. Which left ventricular function is impaired earlier in the evolution of diabetic cardiomyopathy? An echocardiographic study of young type I diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 1994; 17:633-9.
60. Riggs TW, Transue D. Doppler echocardiographic evaluation of left ventricular diastolic function in adolescents with diabetes mellitus. Am J Cardiol 1990; 65:899-902.
61. Paillole C, Dahan M, Paycha F, Solal AC, Passa P, Gourgon R. Prevalence and significance of left ventricular filling abnormalities determined by Doppler echocardiography in young type I (insulin-dependent) diabetic patients. Am J Cardiol 1989; 64:1010-6.
62. Uusitupa M, Mustonen J, Laakso M, et al. Impairment of diastolic function in middle-aged type 1 (insulin-dependent) and type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetic patients free of cardiovascular disease. Diabetologia 1988; 31:783-91.
63. Zarich SW, Arbuckle BE, Cohen LR, Roberts M, Nesto RW. Diastolic abnormalities in young asymptomatic diabetic patients assessed by pulsed Doppler echocardiography. J Am Coll Cardiol 1988; 12:114-20.
64. Mildenberger RR, Bar-Shlomo B, Druck MN, et al. Clinically unrecognized ventricular dysfunction in young diabetic patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 1984; 4:234-8.
65. Shapiro LM, Leatherdale BA, Mackinnon J, Fletcher RF. Left ventricular function in diabetes mellitus. II: relation between clinical features and left ventricular function. Br Heart J 1981; 45:129-32.
66. Bloomgarden ZT. The European Association for the Study of Diabetes Annual Meeting, 1998: complications of diabetes. Diabetes Care 1999; 22:1364-70.
67. Creager MA, Luscher TF, Cosentino F, Beckman JA. Diabetes and vascular disease: pathophysiology, clinical consequences, and medical therapy: Part I. Circulation 2003; 108:1527-32.
68. Du X, Matsumura T, Edelstein D, et al. Inhibition of GAPDH activity by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase activates three major pathways of hyperglycemic damage in endothelial cells. J Clin Invest 2003; 112:1049-57.
69. Ceriello A, Motz E. Is oxidative stress the pathogenic mechanism underlying insulin resistance, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease? The common soil hypothesis revisited. Arterioscler Thromb Vase Biol 2004; 24:816-23.
70. Hsueh WA, Lyon CJ, Quinones MJ. Insulin resistance and the endothelium. Am J Med 2004; 117:109-17.
71. Quinones MJ, Hernandez-Pampaloni M, Schelbert H, et al. Coronary vasomotor abnormalities in insulin-resistant individuals. Ann Intern Med 2004; 140:700-8.
72. Mather KJ, Verma S, Anderson TJ. Improved endothelial function with metformin in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 37:1344-50.
73. Mullen MJ, Wright D, Donald AE, Thorne S, Thomson H, Deanfield JE. Atorvastatin but not L-arginine improves endothelial function in type I diabetes mellitus: a double-blind study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000; 36:410-6.
74. Calverley DC, Hacker MR, Loda KA, et al. Increased platelet Fc receptor expression as a potential contributing cause of platelet hypersensitivity to collagen in diabetes mellitus. Br J Haematol 2003; 121:139-42.
75. Davi G, Catalano I, Averna M, et al. Thromboxane biosynthesis and platelet function in type II diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1990; 322:1769-74.
76. Davi G, Ciabattoni G, Consoli A, et al. In vivo formation of 8-iso-prostaglandin f2alpha and platelet activation in diabetes mellitus: effects of improved metabolic control and vitamin E supplementation. Circulation 1999; 99:224-9.
77. Winocour PD. Platelet abnormalities in diabetes mellitus. Diabetes 1992; 41 (Suppl 2):26-31.
78. Shechter M, Merz CN, Paul-Labrador MJ, Kaul S. Blood glucose and platelet-dependent thrombosis in patients with coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000; 35:300-7.
79. Bhatt DL, Marso SP, Lincoff AM, Wolski KE, Ellis SG, Topol EJ. Abciximab reduces mortality in diabetics following percutaneous coronary intervention. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000; 35:922-8.
80. Theroux P, Alexander J Jr, Pharand C, et al. Glycoprotein Ilb/IIIa receptor blockade improves outcomes in diabetic patients presenting with unstable angina/non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction: results from the Platelet Receptor Inhibition in Ischemic Syndrome Management in Patients Limited by Unstable Signs and Symptoms (PRISM-PLUS) study. Circulation 2000; 102:2466-72.
81. Ostermann H, van de Loo J. Factors of the hemostatic system in diabetic patients. A survey of controlled studies. Haemostasis 1986; 16:386-116.
82. Saito I, Folsom AR, Brancati FL, Duncan BB, Chambless LE, McGovern PG. Nontraditional risk factors for coronary heart disease incidence among persons with diabetes: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Ann Intern Med 2000; 133:81-91.
83. Stec JJ, Silbershatz H, Tofler GH, et al. Association of fibrinogen with cardiovascular risk factors and cardiovascular disease in the Framingham Offspring Population. Circulation 2000; 102:1634-8.
84. Badawi H, el-Sawy M, Mikhail M, Nomeir AM, Tewfik S. Platelets, coagulation and fibrinolysis in diabetic and non-diabetic patients with quiescent coronary heart disease. Angiology 1970; 21:511-9.
85. Small M, Lowe GD, MacCuish AC, Forbes CD. Thrombin and plasmin activity in diabetes mellitus and their association with glycaemic control. Q J Med 1987; 65:1025-31.
86. Sobel BE, Woodcock-Mitchell J, Schneider DJ, Holt RE, Marutsuka K, Gold H. Increased plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 in coronary artery atherectomy specimens from type 2 diabetic compared with nondiabetic patients: a potential factor predisposing to thrombosis and its persistence. Circulation 1998; 97:2213-21.
87. Sambola A, Osende J, Hathcock J, et al. Role of risk factors in the modulation of tissue factor activity and blood thrombogenicity. Circulation 2003; 107:973-7.
88. Moreno PR, Murcia AM, Palacios IF, et al. Coronary composition and macrophage infiltration in atherectomy specimens from patients with diabetes mellitus. Circulation 2000; 102:2180-1.
89. Burke AP, Kolodgie FD, Zieske A, et al. Morphologic findings of coronary atherosclerotic plaques in diabetics: a postmortem study. Arterioscler Thromb Vase Biol 2004; 24:1266-71.
90. Collins R, Armitage J, Parish S, Sleigh P, Peto R. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol-lowering with simvastatin in 5963 people with diabetes: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2003; 361:2005-16.
91. Langer A, Freeman MR, Josse RG, Armstrong PW. Metaiodobenzylguanidine imaging in diabetes mellitus: assessment of cardiac sympathetic denervation and its relation to autonomic dysfunction and silent myocardial ischemia. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995; 25:610-8.
92. Di Carli MF, Bianco-Batlles D, Landa ME, et al. Effects of autonomic neuropathy on coronary blood flow in patients with diabetes mellitus. Circulation 1999; 100:813-9.
93. Stevens MJ, Raffel DM, Allman KC, et al. Cardiac sympathetic dysinnervation in diabetes: implications for enhanced cardiovascular risk. Circulation 1998; 98:961-8.
94. Prevalence of unrecognized silent myocardial ischemia and its association with atherosclerotic risk factors in noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Milan Study on Atherosclerosis and Diabetes (MiSAD) Group. Am J Cardiol 1997; 79:134-9.
95. Nesto RW, Watson FS, Kowalchuk GJ, et al. Silent myocardial ischemia and infarction in diabetics with peripheral vascular disease: assessment by dipyridamole thallium-201 scintigraphy. Am Heart J 1990; 120:1073-7.
96. Wackers FJ, Young LH, Inzucchi SE, et al. Detection of silent myocardial ischemia in asymptomatic diabetic subjects: the DIAD study. Diabetes Care 2004; 27:1954-61.
97. Nesto RW. Screening for asymptomatic coronary artery disease in diabetes. Diabetes Care 1999; 22:1393-5.
98. Kannel WB. Lipids, diabetes, and coronary heart disease: insights from the Framingham Study. Am Heart J 1985; 110:1100-7.
99. Margolis JR, Kannel WS, Feinleib M, Dawber TR, McNamara PM. Clinical features of unrecognized myocardial infarction-silent and symptomatic. Eighteen year follow-up: the Framingham study. Am J Cardiol 1973; 32:1-7.
100. Niakan E, Harati Y, Rolak LA, Comstock JP, Rokey R. Silent myocardial infarction and diabetic cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy. Arch Intern Med 1986; 146:2229-30.
101. Naka M, Hiramatsu K, Aizawa T, et al. Silent myocardial ischemia in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus as judged by treadmill exercise testing and coronary angiography. Am Heart J 1992; 123:46-53.
102. Koistinen MJ. Prevalence of asymptomatic myocardial ischaemia in diabetic subjects. Bmj 1990; 301:92-5.
103. Pyorala K, Pedersen TR, Kjekshus J, Faergeman O, Olsson AG, Thorgeirsson G. Cholesterol lowering with simvastatin improves prognosis of diabetic patients with coronary heart disease. A subgroup analysis of the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Diabetes Care 1997; 20:614-20.
104. Sacks FM, Pfeffer MA, Moye LA, et al. The effect of pravastatin on coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. Cholesterol and Recurrent Events Trial investigators. N Engl J Med 1996; 335:1001-9.
105. Executive summary of the third report of The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). J Am Med Assoc 2001; 285:2486-97.
106. Steiner G. Lipid intervention trials in diabetes. Diabetes Care 2000; 23 (Suppl 2):B49-53.
107. Yusuf S, Sleight P, Pogue J, Bosch J, Da vies R, Dagenais G. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The heart outcomes prevention evaluation study investigators. N Engl J Med 2000; 342:145-53.
108. Kjekshus J, Gilpin E, Cali G, Blackey AR, Henning H, Ross J Jr. Diabetic patients and beta-blockers after acute myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J 1990; 11:43-50.
109. Kendall MJ, Lynch KP, Hjalmarson A, Kjekshus J. Beta-blockers and sudden cardiac death. Ann Intern Med 1995; 123:358-67.
110. Malmberg K, Herlitz J, Hjalmarson A, Ryden L. Effects of metoprolol on mortality and late infarction in diabetics with suspected acute myocardial infarction. Retrospective data from two large studies. Eur Heart J 1989; 10:423-8.
111. Gundersen T, Kjekshus J. Timolol treatment after myocardial infarction in diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 1983; 6:285-90.
112. Jonas M, Reicher-Reiss H, Boyko V, et al. Usefulness of beta-blocker therapy in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and coronary artery disease. Bezafibrate Infarction Prevention (BIP) Study Group. Am J Cardiol 1996; 77:1273-7.
113. Collaborative overview of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy-II: Maintenance of vascular graft or arterial patency by antiplatelet therapy. Antiplatelet Trialists' Collaboration. Br Med J 1994; 308:159-68.
114. Aspirin therapy in diabetes. American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 1997; 20:1772-3.
115. Influence of diabetes on 5-year mortality and morbidity in a randomized trial comparing CABG and PTCA in patients with multivessel disease: the Bypass Angioplasty Revascularization Investigation (BARI). Circulation 1997; 96:1761-9.
116. Chaitman. BR, Rosen AD, Williams DO, et al. Myocardial infarction and cardiac mortality in the Bypass angioplasty revascularization investigation (BARI) randomized trial. Circulation 1997; 96:2162-70.
117. King SB 3rd, Kosinski AS, Guyton RA, Lembo NJ, Weintraub WS. Eight-year mortality in the Emory Angioplasty versus Surgery Trial (EAST). J Am Coll Cardiol 2000; 35:1116-21.
118. Abizaid A, Costa MA, Centemero M, et al. Clinical and economic impact of diabetes mellitus on percutaneous and surgical treatment of multivessel coronary disease patients: insights from the Arterial revascularization therapy study (ARTS) trial. Circulation 2001; 104:533-8.
119. Davies RF, Goldberg AD, Forman S, et al. Asymptomatic Cardiac Ischemia Pilot (ACIP) study two-year follow-up: outcomes of patients randomized to initial strategies of medical therapy versus revascularization. Circulation 1997; 95:2037-43.
120. Sobel BE, Frye R, Detre KM. Burgeoning dilemmas in the management of diabetes and cardiovascular disease: rationale for the Bypass Angioplasty Revascularization Investigation 2 Diabetes (BARI 2D) Trial. Circulation 2003; 107:636-42.
121. Effect of intensive diabetes management on macrovascular events and risk factors in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Am J Cardiol 1995; 75:894-903.
122. Nathan DM, cleary PA, Backlund JY, et al. Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2005; 353:2643-53.
123. Malmberg K, Ryden L, Efendic S, et al. Randomized trial of insulin-glucose infusion followed by subcutaneous insulin treatment in diabetic patients with acute myocardial infarction (DIGAMI study): effects on mortality at 1 year. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995; 26:57-65.
124. Califf RM. Simple principles of clinical trials remain powerful. J Am Med Assoc 2005; 293:489-91.
125. Mehta SR, Yusuf S, Diaz R, et al. Effect of glucose-insulin-potassium infusion on mortality in patients with acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction: the CREATE-ECLA randomized controlled trial. J Am Med Assoc 2005; 293:437-46.
126. Malmberg K. Prospective randomized study of intensive insulin treatment on long term survival after acute myocardial infarction in patients with diabetes mellitus. DIGAMI (Diabetes Mellitus, Insulin Glucose Infusion in Acute Myocardial Infarction) Study Group. Br Med J 1997; 314:1512-5.
127. Antman EM, Anbe DT, Armstrong PW, et al. ACC/AHA guidelines for the management of patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the 1999 Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Acute Myocardial Infarction). Circulation 2004; 110:588-636.
128. Eagle KA, Brundage BH, Chaitman BR, et al. Guidelines for perioperative cardiovascular evaluation for noncardiac surgery. Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Committee on Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation for Noncardiac Surgery. Circulation 1996; 93:1278-317.
129. Gibbons RJ, Balady GJ, Beasley JW, et al. ACC/AHA guidelines for exercise testing: executive summary. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Exercise Testing). Circulation 1997; 96:345-54.
130. Rajagopalan N, Miller TD, Hodge DO, Frye RL, Gibbons. RJ. Identifying high-risk asymptomatic diabetic patients who are candidates for screening stress single-photon emission computed tomography imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005; 45:43-9.
131. Diamond GA, Staniloff HM, Forrester JS, Pollock BH, Swan HJ. Computer-assisted diagnosis in the noninvasive evaluation of patients with suspected coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 1983; 1:444-55.
132. Pryor DB, Harrell FE Jr, Lee KL, Califf RM, Rosati RA. Estimating the likelihood of significant coronary artery disease. Am J Med 1983; 75:771-80.
133. Berman DS, Hachamovitch R, Kiat H, et al. Incremental value of prognostic testing in patients with known or suspected ischemic heart disease: a basis for optimal utilization of exercise technetium-99m sestamibi myocardial perfusion single-photon emission computed tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995; 26:639-47.
134. Hachamovitch R, Berman DS, Kiat H, Cohen I, Friedman JD, Shaw LJ. Value of stress myocardial perfusion single photon emission computed tomography in patients with normal resting electrocardiograms: an evaluation of incremental prognostic value and cost-effectiveness. Circulation 2002; 105:823-9.
135. Poornima IG, Miller TD, Christian TF, Hodge DO, Bailey KR, Gibbons RJ. Utility of myocardial perfusion imaging in patients with low-risk treadmill scores. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 43:194-9.
136. Berman DS, Wong ND, Gransar H, et al. Relationship between stress-induced myocardial ischemia and atherosclerosis measured by coronary calcium tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 44:923-30.
137. He ZX, Hedrick TD, Pratt CM, et al. Severity of coronary artery calcification by electron beam computed tomography predicts silent myocardial ischemia. Circulation 2000; 101:244-51.
138. Lee TH, Boucher CA. Clinical practice. Noninvasive tests in patients with stable coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 2001; 344:1840-5.
139. Garber AM, Solomon NA. Cost-effectiveness of alternative test strategies for the diagnosis of coronary artery disease. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130:719-28.
140. Gianrossi R, Detrano R, Mulvihill D, et al. Exercise-induced ST depression in the diagnosis of coronary artery disease. A meta-analysis. Circulation 1989; 80:87-98.
141. Berman DS, Kang X, Hayes SW, et al. Adenosine myocardial perfusion single-photon emission computed tomography in women compared with men. Impact of diabetes mellitus on incremental prognostic value and effect on patient management. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 41:1125-33.
142. Giri S, Shaw LJ, Murthy DR, et al. Impact of diabetes on the risk stratification using stress single-photon emission computed tomography myocardial perfusion imaging in patients with symptoms suggestive of coronary artery disease. Circulation 2002; 105:32-40.
143. Kang X, Berman DS, Lewin HC, et al. Incremental prognostic value of myocardial perfusion single photon emission computed tomography in patients with diabetes mellitus. Am Heart J 1999; 138:1025-32.
144. Zellweger MJ, Hachamovitch R, Kang X, et al. Prognostic relevance of symptoms versus objective evidence of coronary artery disease in diabetic patients. Eur Heart J 2004; 25:543-50.
145. Hachamovitch R, Hayes S, Friedman JD, et al. Determinants of risk and its temporal variation in patients with normal stress myocardial perfusion scans: what is the warranty period of a normal scan? J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 41:1329-10.
146. Caracciolo EA, Chaitman BR, Forman SA, et al. Diabetics with coronary disease have a prevalence of asymptomatic ischemia during exercise treadmill testing and ambulatory ischemia monitoring similar to that of non-diabetic patients. An ACIP database study. ACIP investigators. Asymptomatic cardiac ischemia pilot investigators. Circulation 1996; 93:2097-105.
147. Raggi P, Shaw LJ, Herman DS, Callister TQ. Prognostic value of coronary artery calcium screening in subjects with and without diabetes. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 43:1663-9.
148. Currie CJ, Morgan CL, Peters JR. The epidemiology and cost of inpatient care for peripheral vascular disease, infection, neuropathy, and ulceration in diabetes. Diabetes Care 1998; 21:42-8.
149. Vigilance JE, Reid HL, Richards-George P. Peripheral occlusive arterial disease in diabetic clinic attendees. West Indian Med J 1999; 48:143-6.
150. Katsilambros NL, Tsapogas PC, Arvanitis MP, et al. Risk factors for lower extremity arterial disease in non-insulin-dependent diabetic persons. Diabet Med 1996; 13:243-6.
151. Beks PJ, Mackaay AJ, de Neeling JN, de Vries H, Bouter LM, Heine RJ. Peripheral arterial disease in relation to glycaemic level in an elderly Caucasian population: the Hoorn study. Diabetologia 1995; 38:86-96.
152. Jude EB, Oyibo SO, Chalmers N, Boulton AJ. Peripheral arterial disease in diabetic and non-diabetic patients: a comparison of severity and outcome. Diabetes Care 2001; 24:1433-7.
153. Calle-Pascual AL, Duran A, Diaz A, et al. Comparison of peripheral arterial reconstruction in diabetic and non-diabetic patients: a prospective clinic-based study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2001; 53:129-36.
154. Hughson WG, Mann JI, Tibbs DJ, Woods HF, Walton I. Intermittent claudication: factors determining outcome. Br Med J 1978; 1:1377-9.
155. Bild DE, Selby JV, Sinnock P, Browner WS, Braveman P, Showstack JA. Lower-extremity amputation in people with diabetes. Epidemiology and prevention. Diabetes Care 1989; 12:24-31.
156. Aboyans V, Criqui MH, Denenberg JO, Knoke JD, Ridker PM, Fronek A. Risk factors for progression of peripheral arterial disease in large and small vessels. Circulation 2006; 113:2623-9.
157. Coffman JD. Intermittent claudication and rest pain: physiologic concepts and therapeutic approaches. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1979; 22:53-72.
158. Prevention of atherosclerotic complications: controlled trial of ketanserin. Prevention of athero sclerotic complications with ketanserin trial group. Br Med J 1989; 298:424-30.
159. Criqui MH, Langer RD, Fronek A, et al. Mortality over a period of 10 years in patients with peripheral arterial disease. N Engl J Med 1992; 326:381-6.
160. Janka HU, Standl E, Mehnert H. Peripheral vascular disease in diabetes mellitus and its relation to cardiovascular risk factors: screening with the doppler ultrasonic technique. Diabetes Care 1980; 3:207-13.
161. Orchard TJ, Strandness DE Jr. Assessment of peripheral vascular disease in diabetes. Report and recommendations of an international workshop sponsored by the American Diabetes Association and the American Heart Association September 18 20, 1992 New Orleans, Louisiana. Circulation 1993; 88:819-28.
162. Murabito JM, D'Agostino. RB, Silbershatz H, Wilson WF. Intermittent claudication. A risk profile from The Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 1997; 96:44-9.
163. Criqui MH, Fronek A, Klauber MR, Barrett-Connor E, Gabriel S. The sensitivity, specificity, and predictive value of traditional clinical evaluation of peripheral arterial disease: results from non-invasive testing in a defined population. Circulation 1985; 71:516-22.
164. Wang JC, Criqui MH, Denenberg JO, McDermott MM, Golomb BA, Fronek A. Exertional leg pain in patients with and without peripheral arterial disease. Circulation 2005; 112:3501-8.
165. Mohler ER 3rd. Peripheral arterial disease: identification and implications. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163:2306-14.
166. McDermott MM. Ankle brachial index as a predictor of outcomes in peripheral arterial disease. J Lab Clin Med 1999; 133:33-40.
167. Hiatt WR, Hoag S, Hamman RF. Effect of diagnostic criteria on the prevalence of peripheral arterial disease. The San Luis Valley Diabetes Study. Circulation 1995; 91:1472-9.
168. Weitz JI, Byrne J, Clagett GP, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of chronic arterial insufficiency of the lower extremities: a critical review. Circulation 1996; 94:3026-19.
169. Resnick HE, Lindsay RS, McDermott MM, et al. Relationship of high and low ankle brachial index to all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality: the Strong Heart Study. Circulation 2004; 109:733-9.
170. Hiatt WR, Jones DN. The role of hemodynamics and duplex ultrasound in the diagnosis of peripheral arterial disease. Curr Opin Cardiol 1992; 7:805-10.
171. Ouriel K. Peripheral arterial disease. Lancet 2001; 358:1257-64.
172. Fishman E. CT Angiography: the State of the Art in 2004. In: Book CT ed. Angiography: the State of the Art in 2004. Vol. 2004. City; 2004.
173. Hoffmann U, Ferencik M, Cury RC, Pena AJ. Coronary CT angiography. J Nucl Med 2006; 47:797-806.
174. Freund KM, Belanger AJ, D'Agostino RB, Kannel WB. The health risks of smoking. The Framingham Study: 34 years of follow-up. Ann Epidemiol 1993; 3:417-24.
175. Jonason T, Bergstrom R. Cessation of smoking in patients with intermittent claudication. Effects on the risk of peripheral vascular complications, myocardial infarction and mortality. Acta Med Scand 1987; 221:253-60.
176. Anthonisen NR, Skeans MA, Wise RA, Manfreda J, Kanner RE, Connett JE. The effects of a smoking cessation intervention on 14.5-year mortality: a randomized clinical trial. Ann Intern Med 2005; 142:233-9.
177. Stratton IM, Adler AI, Neil HA, et al. Association of glycaemia with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 35): prospective observational study. Br Med J 2000; 321:405-12.
178. Al-Delaimy WK, Merchant AT, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB. Effect of type 2 diabetes and its duration on the risk of peripheral arterial disease among men. Am J Med 2004; 116:236-10.
179. Standards of medical care in diabetes 2006. Diabetes Care 2006; 29 Suppl 1:MS4-42.
180. Cannon CP, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, et al. Intensive versus moderate lipid lowering with statins after acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 2004; 350:1495-504.
181. Pedersen TR, Kjekshus J, Pyorala K, et al. Effect of simvastatin on ischemic signs and symptoms in the Scandinavian simvastatin survival study (4S). Am J Cardiol 1998; 81:333-5.
182. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2002; 360:7-22.
183. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Br Med J 1998; 317:703-13.
184. Hansson L, Zanchetti A, Carruthers SG, et al. Effects of intensive blood-pressure lowering and low- dose aspirin in patients with hypertension: principal results of the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) randomized trial. HOT Study Group. Lancet 1998; 351:1755-62.
185. Estacio RO, Jeffers BW, Hiatt WR, Biggerstaff SL, Gifford N, Schrier RW. The effect of nisoldipine as compared with enalapril on cardiovascular outcomes in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes and hypertension. N Engl J Med 1998; 338:645-52.
186. Mehler PS, Coll JR, Estacio R, Esler A, Schrier RW, Hiatt WR. Intensive blood pressure control reduces the risk of cardiovascular events in patients with peripheral arterial disease and type 2 diabetes. Circulation 2003; 107:753-6.
187. Collaborative overview of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy-I: Prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke by prolonged antiplatelet therapy in various categories of patients. Antiplatelet Trialists' Collaboration. Br Med J 1994; 308:81-106.
188. Colwell JA, Bingham SF, Abraira C, et al. Veterans Administration Cooperative Study on anti-platelet agents in diabetic patients after amputation for gangrene: II. Effects of aspirin and dipyridamole on atherosclerotic vascular disease rates. Diabetes Care 1986; 9:140-8.
189. Colwell JA. Aspirin therapy in diabetes. Diabetes Care 2003; 26 (Suppl 1):587-8.
190. Cimminiello C, Milani M. Diabetes mellitus and peripheral vascular disease: is aspirin effective in preventing vascular events? Diabetologia 1996; 39:1402-1.
191. Peripheral arterial disease in people with diabetes. Diabetes Care 2003; 26:3333-41.
192. A randomized, blinded, trial of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients at risk of ischaemic events (CAPRIE). CAPRIE Steering Committee. Lancet 1996; 348:1329-39.
193. Bhatt DL, Marso SP, Hirsch AT, Ringleb PA, Hacke W, Topol EJ. Amplified benefit of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients with diabetes mellitus. Am J Cardiol 2002; 90:625-8.
194. Angelkort B, Spurk P, Habbaba A, Mahder M. Blood flow properties and walking performance in chronic arterial occlusive disease. Angiology 1985; 36:285-92.
195. Jackson MR, Clagett GP. Antithrombotic therapy in peripheral arterial occlusive disease. Chest 2001; 119:283S-299S.
196. Money SR, Herd JA, Isaacsohn JL, et al. Effect of cilostazol on walking distances in patients with intermittent claudication caused by peripheral vascular disease. J Vase Surg 1998; 27:267-74. discussion 274-5.
197. Dawson DL, Cutler BS, Hiatt WR, et al. A comparison of cilostazol and pentoxifylline for treating intermittent claudication. Am J Med 2000; 109:523-30.
198. Loosemore TM, Chalmers TC, Dormandy JA. A meta-analysis of randomized placebo control trials in Fontaine stages III and IV peripheral occlusive arterial disease. Int Angiol 1994; 13:133-12.
199. Mohler ER 3rd, Hiatt WR, Olin JW, Wade M, Jeffs R, Hirsch AT. Treatment of intermittent claudication with beraprost sodium, an orally active prostaglandin 12 analogue: a double-blinded, randomized, controlled trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 41:1679-86.
200. Reiter M, Bucek RA, Stumpflen A, Minar E. Prostanoids for intermittent claudication. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004:CD000986.
201. Anderson PL, Gelijns A, Moskowitz A, et al. Understanding trends in inpatient surgical volume: vascular interventions, 1980-2000. J Vase Surg 2004; 39:1200-8.
202. Dormandy JA, Rutherford RB. Management of peripheral arterial disease (PAD). TASC Working Group. TransAtlantic Inter-Society Concensus (TASC). J Vase Surg 2000; 31:S1-S296.
203. Sullivan TM, Childs MB, Bacharach JM, Gray BH, Piedmonte MR. Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty and primary stenting of the iliac arteries in 288 patients. J Vase Surg 1997; 25:829-38. discussion 838-9.
204. Isner JM, Rosenfield K. Redefining the treatment of peripheral artery disease. Role of percutaneous revascularization. Circulation 1993; 88:1534-57.
205. Beckman JA, Creager MA, Libby P. Diabetes and atherosclerosis: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management. J Am Med Assoc 2002; 287:2570-81.
206. Paries P, LoGerfo F, Hook S. The Impact of diabetes on arterial reconstructions for multilevel arterial occlusive disease. Surg Gynecol Obstet 2001; 181:251.
207. Feinglass J, Brown JL, LoSasso A, et al. Rates of lower-extremity amputation and arterial reconstruction in the United States, 1979 to 1996. Am J Public Health 1999; 89:1222-7.
208. Eagle KA, et al. Guidelines for perioperative cardiovascular evaluation for non-cardiac surgery. Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Committee on Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation for Noncardiac Surgery. Circulation, 1996. 93(6): p. 1278-317.
209. Consensus Development Conference. Diabetes Care, Volume 21(9). September 1998, 1551-155.