Antituberculosis drug-induced hepatotoxicity: Concise up-to-date review

Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology (Australia)

Volumn 23, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 192-202

  Tostmann, Alma ^a   Boeree, Martin J ^a   Aarnoutse, Rob E ^a   De Lange, Wiel C M ^a   Van Der Ven, Andre J A M ^a   Dekhuijzen, Richard ^a  

^a RADBOUD UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Adverse effect; Antitubercular agents; Antituberculous treatment; Drug induced hepatitis; Hydrazine; Isoniazid; Pyrazinamide; Rifampicin; Rifampin; Toxic hepatitis

Indexed keywords

ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; ETHAMBUTOL; FLUCONAZOLE; ISONIAZID; PYRAZINAMIDE; RIFAMPICIN;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; CLINICAL FEATURE; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; GENETIC RISK; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; INCIDENCE; LIVER DISEASE; LIVER TOXICITY; MALNUTRITION; MONOTHERAPY; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; TREATMENT DURATION; TUBERCULOSIS;

EID: 39149145797     PISSN: 08159319     EISSN: 14401746     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1746.2007.05207.x     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. World Health Organization. Tuberculosis. WHO Fact Sheet No. 104. Revised. March 2006, 2006.
2. World Health Organization Global Tuberculosis Programme. Treatment of Tuberculosis: Guidelines for National Programmes, 3rd edn. (WHO/CDS/TB/2003.13). Geneva : World Health Organization, 2003.
3. Frieden TR, Sterling TR, Munsiff SS, Watt CJ, Dye C. Tuberculosis. Lancet 2003 362 : 887 99.
4. Kaona FA, Tuba M, Siziya S, Sikaona L. An assessment of factors contributing to treatment adherence and knowledge of TB transmission among patients on TB treatment. BMC Public Health 2004 4 : 68.
5. Wares DF, Singh S, Acharya AK, Dangi R. Non-adherence to tuberculosis treatment in the eastern Tarai of Nepal. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2003 7 : 327 35.
6. World Health Organization/IUATLD Global project on anti-tuberculous drug Resistance Surveillance. Anti-tuberculous Drug Resistance in the World. Third global report. WHO/HTM/TB/2004.343. Geneva : World Health Organization, 2004.
7. Girling DJ. The hepatic toxicity of antituberculosis regimens containing isoniazid, rifampicin and pyrazinamide. Tubercle 1978 59 : 13 32.
8. Benichou C. Criteria of drug-induced liver disorders. Report of an international consensus meeting. J. Hepatol. 1990 11 : 272 6.
9. WHO. International Monitoring of Adverse Reactions to Drugs: Adverse Reaction Terminology. Uppsala : WHO Collaborating Center for International Drug Monitoring, 1992.
10. Dossing M, Wilcke JT, Askgaard DS, Nybo B. Liver injury during antituberculosis treatment: an 11-year study. Tuber. Lung Dis. 1996 77 : 335 40.
11. Ormerod LP, Horsfield N. Frequency and type of reactions to antituberculosis drugs: observations in routine treatment. Tuber. Lung Dis. 1996 77 : 37 42.
12. Tost JR, Vidal R, Cayla J, Diaz-Cabanela D, Jimenez A, Broquetas JM. Severe hepatotoxicity due to anti-tuberculosis drugs in Spain. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2005 9 : 534 40.
13. Yee D, Valiquette C, Pelletier M, Parisien I, Rocher I, Menzies D. Incidence of serious side effects from first-line antituberculosis drugs among patients treated for active tuberculosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit Care Med. 2003 167 : 1472 7.
14. van Hest R, Baars H, Kik S et al. Hepatotoxicity of rifampin-pyrazinamide and isoniazid preventive therapy and tuberculosis treatment. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2004 39 : 488 96.
15. Teleman MD, Chee CB, Earnest A, Wang YT. Hepatotoxicity of tuberculosis chemotherapy under general programme conditions in Singapore. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2002 6 : 699 705.
16. Fernandez-Villar A, Sopena B, Fernandez-Villar J et al. The influence of risk factors on the severity of anti-tuberculosis drug-induced hepatotoxicity. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2004 8 : 1499 505.
17. Pukenyte E, Lescure FX, Rey D et al. Incidence of and risk factors for severe liver toxicity in HIV-infected patients on anti-tuberculosis treatment. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2007 11 : 78 84.
18. Schaberg T, Rebhan K, Lode H. Risk factors for side-effects of isoniazid, rifampin and pyrazinamide in patients hospitalized for pulmonary tuberculosis. Eur. Respir. J. 1996 9 : 2026 30.
19. Breen RA, Miller RF, Gorsuch T et al. Adverse events and treatment interruption in tuberculosis patients with and without HIV co-infection. Thorax 2006 61 : 791 4.
20. Huang YS, Chern HD, Su WJ et al. Cytochrome P450 2E1 genotype and the susceptibility to antituberculosis drug-induced hepatitis. Hepatology 2003 37 : 924 30.
21. Sharma SK, Balamurugan A, Saha PK, Pandey RM, Mehra NK. Evaluation of clinical and immunogenetic risk factors for the development of hepatotoxicity during antituberculosis treatment. Am. J. Respir. Crit Care Med. 2002 166 : 916 19.
22. Ungo JR, Jones D, Ashkin D et al. Antituberculosis drug-induced hepatotoxicity. The role of hepatitis C virus and the human immunodeficiency virus. Am. J. Respir. Crit Care Med. 1998 157 (6 Pt 1 1871 6.
23. Sharifzadeh M, Rasoulinejad M, Valipour F, Nouraie M, Vaziri S. Evaluation of patient-related factors associated with causality, preventability, predictability and severity of hepatotoxicity during antituberculosis [correction of antituberclosis] treatment. Pharmacol. Res. 2005 51 : 353 8.
24. Pande JN, Singh SP, Khilnani GC, Khilnani S, Tandon RK. Risk factors for hepatotoxicity from antituberculosis drugs: a case-control study. Thorax 1996 51 : 132 6.
25. Steele MA, Burk RF, DesPrez RM. Toxic hepatitis with isoniazid and rifampin. A meta-analysis. Chest 1991 99 : 465 71.
26. Nolan CM, Goldberg SV, Buskin SE. Hepatotoxicity associated with isoniazid preventive therapy: a 7-year survey from a public health tuberculosis clinic. JAMA 1999 281 : 1014 18.
27. Fountain FF, Tolley E, Chrisman CR, Self TH. Isoniazid hepatotoxicity associated with treatment of latent tuberculosis infection: a 7-year evaluation from a public health tuberculosis clinic. Chest 2005 128 : 116 23.
28. Villarino ME, Ridzon R, Weismuller PC et al. Rifampin preventive therapy for tuberculosis infection: experience with 157 adolescents. Am. J. Respir. Crit Care Med. 1997 155 : 1735 8.
29. Younossian AB, Rochat T, Ketterer JP, Wacker J, Janssens JP. High hepatotoxicity of pyrazinamide and ethambutol for treatment of latent tuberculosis. Eur. Respir. J. 2005 26 : 462 4.
30. Sarich TC, Youssefi M, Zhou T, Adams SP, Wall RA, Wright JM. Role of hydrazine in the mechanism of isoniazid hepatotoxicity in rabbits. Arch. Toxicol. 1996 70 : 835 40.
31. Black M, Mitchell JR, Zimmerman HJ, Ishak KG, Epler GR. Isoniazid-associated hepatitis in 114 patients. Gastroenterology 1975 69 : 289 302.
32. Mitchell JR, Zimmerman HJ, Ishak KG et al. Isoniazid liver injury: clinical spectrum, pathology, and probable pathogenesis. Ann. Intern. Med. 1976 84 : 181 92.
33. Scales MD, Timbrell JA. Studies on hydrazine hepatotoxicity. 1. Pathological findings. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health. 1982 10 : 941 53.
34. Timbrell JA, Scales MD, Streeter AJ. Studies on hydrazine hepatotoxicity. 2. Biochemical findings. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health. 1982 10 : 955 68.
35. Sarich TC, Zhou T, Adams SP, Bain AI, Wall RA, Wright JM. A model of isoniazid-induced hepatotoxicity in rabbits. J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. Methods 1995 34 : 109 16.
36. Capelle P, Dhumeaux D, Mora M, Feldmann G, Berthelot P. Effect of rifampicin on liver function in man. Gut 1972 13 : 366 71.
37. Westphal JF, Vetter D, Brogard JM. Hepatic side-effects of antibiotics. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 1994 33 : 387 401.
38. From the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Fatal and severe hepatitis associated with rifampin and pyrazinamide for the treatment of latent tuberculosis infection - New York and Georgia, 2000. JAMA 2001 285 : 2572 3.
39. Lee WM. Drug-induced hepatotoxicity. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003 349 : 474 85.
40. Knowles SR, Uetrecht J, Shear NH. Idiosyncratic drug reactions: the reactive metabolite syndromes. Lancet 2000 356 : 1587 91.
41. Lee WM. Drug-induced hepatotoxicity. N. Engl. J. Med. 1995 333 : 1118 27.
42. Kliewer SA, Goodwin B, Willson TM. The nuclear pregnane X receptor: a key regulator of xenobiotic metabolism. Endocr. Rev. 2002 23 : 687 702.
43. Ellard GA, Gammon PT. Pharmacokinetics of isoniazid metabolism in man. J. Pharmacokinet. Biopharm. 1976 4 : 83 113.
44. Nelson SD, Mitchell JR, Timbrell JA, Snodgrass WR, Corcoran GB III. Isoniazid and iproniazid: activation of metabolites to toxic intermediates in man and rat. Science 1976 193 : 901 3.
45. Beever IW, Blair IA. BMJ. Cirulating hydrazine during treatment with isoniazid rifampicin in man. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1982 13 : 599.
46. Noda A, Hsu KY, Noda H, Yamamoto Y, Kurozumi T. Is isoniazid- hepatotoxicity induced by the metabolite, hydrazine? J. UOEH 1983 5 : 183 90.
47. Gent WL, Seifart HI, Parkin DP, Donald PR, Lamprecht JH. Factors in hydrazine formation from isoniazid by paediatric and adult tuberculosis patients. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1992 43 : 131 6.
48. Wells HG. The pathological anatomy of hydrazine poisoning. J. Exp. Med. 1908 10 : 457 64.
49. Nelson SD, Gordon WP. Metabolic activation of hydrazines. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 1981 136 (Pt B 971 81.
50. Noda A, Noda H, Ohno K et al. Spin trapping of a free radical intermediate formed during microsomal metabolism of hydrazine. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1985 133 : 1086 91.
51. Walubo A, Smith P, Folb PI. The role of oxygen free radicals in isoniazid-induced hepatotoxicity. Methods Find. Exp. Clin. Pharmacol. 1998 20 : 649 55.
52. Parkin DP, Vandenplas S, Botha FJ et al. Trimodality of isoniazid elimination: phenotype and genotype in patients with tuberculosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit Care Med. 1997 155 : 1717 22.
53. Yamamoto T, Suou T, Hirayama C. Elevated serum aminotransferase induced by isoniazid in relation to isoniazid acetylator phenotype. Hepatology 1986 6 : 295 8.
54. Mitchell JR, Thorgeirsson UP, Black M et al. Increased incidence of isoniazid hepatitis in rapid acetylators: possible relation to hydranize metabolites. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1975 18 : 70 9.
55. Huang YS, Chern HD, Su WJ et al. Polymorphism of the N-acetyltransferase 2 gene as a susceptibility risk factor for antituberculosis drug-induced hepatitis. Hepatology 2002 35 : 883 9.
56. Ohno M, Yamaguchi I, Yamamoto I et al. Slow N-acetyltransferase 2 genotype affects the incidence of isoniazid and rifampicin-induced hepatotoxicity. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2000 4 : 256 61.
57. Wen X, Wang JS, Neuvonen PJ, Backman JT. Isoniazid is a mechanism-based inhibitor of cytochrome P450 1A2, 2A6, 2C19 and 3A4 isoforms in human liver microsomes. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2002 57 : 799 804.
58. Vuilleumier N, Rossier MF, Chiappe A et al. CYP2E1 genotype and isoniazid-induced hepatotoxicity in patients treated for latent tuberculosis. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2006 62 : 423 9.
59. Jenner AM, Timbrell JA. In vitro microsomal metabolism of hydrazine. Xenobiotica 1995 25 : 599 609.
60. Jenner AM, Timbrell JA. Influence of inducers and inhibitors of cytochrome P450 on the hepatotoxicity of hydrazine in vivo. Arch. Toxicol. 1994 68 : 349 57.
61. Jenner AM, Timbrell JA. Effect of acute and repeated exposure to low doses of hydrazine on hepatic microsomal enzymes and biochemical parameters in vivo. Arch. Toxicol. 1994 68 : 240 5.
62. Desta Z, Soukhova NV, Flockhart DA. Inhibition of cytochrome P450 (CYP450) isoforms by isoniazid: potent inhibition of CYP2C19 and CYP3A. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2001 45 : 382 92.
63. Sies H. Oxidative stress: from basic research to clinical application. Am. J. Med. 1991 91 : 31S 38S.
64. Sodhi CP, Rana SV, Mehta SK, Vaiphei K, Attari S, Mehta S. Study of oxidative-stress in isoniazid-rifampicin induced hepatic injury in young rats. Drug Chem. Toxicol. 1997 20 : 255 69.
65. Sodhi CP, Rana SV, Mehta SK et al. Study of oxidative stress in isoniazid-induced hepatic injury in young rats with and without protein-energy malnutrition. J. Biochem. Toxicol. 1996 11 : 139 46.
66. Chowdhury A, Santra A, Kundu S et al. Induction of oxidative stress in antitubercular drug-induced hepatotoxicity. Indian J. Gastroenterol. 2001 20 : 97 100.
67. Attri S, Rana SV, Vaiphei K et al. Isoniazid- and rifampicin-induced oxidative hepatic injury - protection by N-acetylcysteine. Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 2000 19 : 517 22.
68. Attri S, Rana SV, Vaiphie K et al. Protective effect of N-acetylcysteine in isoniazid induced hepatic injury in growing rats. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 2001 39 : 436 40.
69. Nicod L, Viollon C, Regnier A, Jacqueson A, Richert L. Rifampicin and isoniazid increase acetaminophen and isoniazid cytotoxicity in human HepG2 hepatoma cells. Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 1997 16 : 28 34.
70. Acocella G, Conti R. Interaction of rifampicin with other drugs. Tubercle 1980 61 : 171 7.
71. Holdiness MR. Clinical pharmacokinetics of the antituberculosis drugs. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 1984 9 : 511 44.
72. Girling DJ. Adverse reactions to rifampicin in antituberculosis regimens. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 1977 3 : 115 32.
73. Kolars JC, Schmiedlin-Ren P, Schuetz JD, Fang C, Watkins PB. Identification of rifampin-inducible P450IIIA4 (CYP3A4) in human small bowel enterocytes. J. Clin. Invest. 1992 90 : 1871 8.
74. Combalbert J, Fabre I, Fabre G et al. Metabolism of cyclosporin A. IV. Purification and identification of the rifampicin-inducible human liver cytochrome P-450 (cyclosporin A oxidase) as a product of P450IIIA gene subfamily. Drug Metab. Dispos. 1989 17 : 197 207.
75. Blair IA, Mansilla TR, Brodie MJ et al. Plasma hydrazine concentrations in man after isoniazid and hydralazine administration. Hum. Toxicol. 1985 4 : 195 202.
76. Sarma GR, Immanuel C, Kailasam S, Narayana AS, Venkatesan P. Rifampin-induced release of hydrazine from isoniazid. A possible cause of hepatitis during treatment of tuberculosis with regimens containing isoniazid and rifampin. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1986 133 : 1072 5.
77. Kwara A, Flanigan TP, Carter EJ. Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in adults with tuberculosis: current status. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2005 9 : 248 57.
78. Ellard GA, Haslam RM. Observations on the reduction of the renal elimination of urate in man caused by the administration of pyrazinamide. Tubercle 1976 57 : 97 103.
79. Ellard GA. Absorption, metabolism and excretion of pyrazinamide in man. Tubercle 1969 50 : 144 58.
80. Maffei FR, Carini M. The inhibitory effect of pyrazinamide on microsomal monooxygenase activities is related to the binding to reduced cytochrome P-450. Pharmacol. Res. Commun. 1980 12 : 523 37.
81. Nishimura Y, Kurata N, Sakurai E, Yasuhara H. Inhibitory effect of antituberculosis drugs on human cytochrome P450-mediated activities. J. Pharmacol. Sci. 2004 96 : 293 300.
82. American Thoracic Society (ATS) and the Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Update: Fatal and severe liver injuries associated with rifampin and pyrazinamide for latent tuberculosis infection, and revisions in American Thoracic Society/CDC Recommendations-United States, 2001. This official ATS/CDC update was approved by the ATS Executive Committee, August 2001. Am. J. Respir. Crit Care Med. 2001 164 : 1319 20.
83. Jasmer RM, Saukkonen JJ, Blumberg HM et al. Short-course rifampin and pyrazinamide compared with isoniazid for latent tuberculosis infection: a multicenter clinical trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 2002 137 : 640 7.
84. McNeill L, Allen M, Estrada C, Cook P. Pyrazinamide and rifampin vs isoniazid for the treatment of latent tuberculosis: improved completion rates but more hepatotoxicity. Chest 2003 123 : 102 6.
85. Stout JE, Engemann JJ, Cheng AC, Fortenberry ER, Hamilton CD. Safety of 2 months of rifampin and pyrazinamide for treatment of latent tuberculosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit Care Med. 2003 167 : 824 7.
86. Lee AM, Mennone JZ, Jones RC, Paul WS. Risk factors for hepatotoxicity associated with rifampin and pyrazinamide for the treatment of latent tuberculosis infection: experience from three public health tuberculosis clinics. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2002 6 : 995 1000.
87. Gordin FM, Cohn DL, Matts JP, Chaisson RE, O'Brien RJ. Hepatotoxicity of rifampin and pyrazinamide in the treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in HIV-infected persons: is it different than in HIV-uninfected persons? Clin. Infect. Dis. 2004 39 : 561 5.
88. Gurumurthy P, Ramachandran G, Hemanth Kumar AK et al. Decreased bioavailability of rifampin and other antituberculosis drugs in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus disease. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2004 48 : 4473 5.
89. Peloquin CA, Nitta AT, Burman WJ et al. Low antituberculosis drug concentrations in patients with AIDS. Ann. Pharmacother. 1996 30 : 919 25.
90. Wong WM, Wu PC, Yuen MF et al. Antituberculosis drug-related liver dysfunction in chronic hepatitis B infection. Hepatology 2000 31 : 201 6.
91. Hunt CM, Westerkam WR, Stave GM. Effect of age and gender on the activity of human hepatic CYP3A. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1992 44 : 275 83.
92. Walter-Sack I, Klotz U. Influence of diet and nutritional status on drug metabolism. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 1996 31 : 47 64.
93. Small PM, Schecter GF, Goodman PC, Sande MA, Chaisson RE, Hopewell PC. Treatment of tuberculosis in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 1991 324 : 289 94.
94. Kucers A. Rifampicin. The Use of Antibiotics: A Clinical Review of Antibacterial, Antifungal and Antiviral Drugs, 5th edn. Oxford : Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997 676 708.
95. Lee BL, Wong D, Benowitz NL, Sullam PM. Altered patterns of drug metabolism in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1993 53 : 529 35.
96. Sanne I, Mommeja-Marin H, Hinkle J et al. Severe hepatotoxicity associated with nevirapine use in HIV-infected subjects. J. Infect. Dis. 2005 191 : 825 9.
97. Nunez M. Hepatotoxicity of antiretrovirals: incidence, mechanisms and management. J. Hepatol. 2006 44 (Suppl. 1 S132 9.
98. Dean GL, Edwards SG, Ives NJ et al. Treatment of tuberculosis in HIV-infected persons in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2002 16 : 75 83.
99. Giziñska J, Szymañski R, Latarska D, Podlasin RB. Evaluation of risk factors for hepatotoxicity in HIV-infected patients treated for tuberculosis [Abstract]. 10th European AIDS Conference, November 2005, 2005. Available from URL: http://www.multiwebcast.com/eacs/2005/10th/253/d.latarska. evaluation.of.risk.factors.for.hepatotoxicity.in.hiv.infected.html
100. Turktas H, Unsal M, Tulek N, Oruc O. Hepatotoxicity of antituberculosis therapy (rifampicin, isoniazid and pyrazinamide) or viral hepatitis. Tuber. Lung Dis. 1994 75 : 58 60.
101. Pol S, Vallet-Pichard A, Fontaine H. Hepatitis C and human immune deficiency coinfection at the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. J. Viral Hepat. 2002 9 : 1 8.
102. Wilkinson GR. Drug metabolism and variability among patients in drug response. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005 352 : 2211 21.
103. Roy B, Chowdhury A, Kundu S et al. Increased risk of antituberculosis drug-induced hepatotoxicity in individuals with glutathione S-transferase M1 'null' mutation. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2001 16 : 1033 7.
104. Hustert E, Zibat A, Presecan-Siedel E et al. Natural protein variants of pregnane X receptor with altered transactivation activity toward CYP3A4. Drug Metab. Dispos. 2001 29 : 1454 9.
105. Controlled trial of four thrice-weekly regimens and a daily regimen all given for 6 months for pulmonary tuberculosis. Lancet 1981 1 : 171 4.
106. Jindani A, Nunn AJ, Enarson DA. Two 8-month regimens of chemotherapy for treatment of newly diagnosed pulmonary tuberculosis: international multicentre randomised trial. Lancet 2004 364 : 1244 51.
107. Chang KC, Leung CC, Yew WW, Tam CM. Standard anti-tuberculosis treatment and hepatotoxicity: do dosing schedules matter? Eur. Respir. J. 2007 29 : 347 51.
108. Blumberg HM, Burman WJ, Chaisson RE et al. American Thoracic Society/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Infectious Diseases Society of America: treatment of tuberculosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit Care Med. 2003 167 : 603 62.
109. Joint Tuberculosis Committee of the British Thoracic Society. Chemotherapy and management of tuberculosis in the United Kingdom: recommendations 1998. Thorax 1998 53 : 536 48.
110. Migliori GB, Raviglione MC, Schaberg T et al. Tuberculosis management in Europe. Task Force of the European Respiratory Society (ERS), the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (IUATLD) Europe Region. Eur. Respir. J. 1999 14 : 978 92.
111. Navarro VJ, Senior JR. Drug-related hepatotoxicity. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006 354 : 731 9.
112. Saukkonen JJ, Cohn DL, Jasmer RM et al. An official ATS statement: hepatotoxicity of antituberculosis therapy. Am. J. Respir. Crit Care Med. 2006 174 : 935 52.
113. Enarson DA, Rieder H, Arnadottir T, Trébucq A. Management of Tuberculosis: A Guide for Low Income Countries, 5th edn. Paris : International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 2000.
114. Kinzig-Schippers M, Tomalik-Scharte D, Jetter A et al. Should we use N-acetyltransferase type 2 genotyping to personalize isoniazid doses? Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2005 49 : 1733 8.
115. Tasduq SA, Peerzada K, Koul S, Bhat R, Johri RK. Biochemical manifestations of anti-tuberculosis drugs induced hepatotoxicity and the effect of silymarin. Hepatol. Res. 2005 31 : 132 5.
116. Spigelman M, Gillespie S. Tuberculosis drug development pipeline: progress and hope. Lancet 2006 367 : 945 7.
117. Johnson JL, Hadad DJ, Boom WH et al. Early and extended early bactericidal activity of levofloxacin, gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin in pulmonary tuberculosis. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2006 10 : 605 12.
118. Marra F, Marra CA, Moadebi S et al. Levofloxacin treatment of active tuberculosis and the risk of adverse events. Chest 2005 128 : 1406 13.
119. Peloquin CA. Therapeutic drug monitoring in the treatment of tuberculosis. Drugs 2002 62 : 2169 83.