Inferring dispersal: A Bayesian approach to phylogeny-based island biogeography, with special reference to the Canary Islands

Journal of Biogeography

Volumn 35, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 428-449

  Sanmartín, Isabel ^a   Van Der Mark, Paul ^b   Ronquist, Fredrik ^b,c  

^a CSIC   (Spain)

^b FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c SWEDISH MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Bayesian inference; Canary Islands; Carrying capacity; Dispersal rates; Island biogeography; Stochastic models

Indexed keywords

BAYESIAN ANALYSIS; DISPERSAL; ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY; MARKOV CHAIN; PHYLOGENETICS; PHYLOGENY; STOCHASTICITY;

ATLANTIC ISLANDS; ATLANTIC OCEAN; CANARY ISLANDS; EURASIA; EUROPE; MACARONESIA; SOUTHERN EUROPE; SPAIN;

EID: 39049089063     PISSN: 03050270     EISSN: 13652699     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2699.2008.01885.x     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (122)

1. Allan, G.J., Francisco-Ortega, J., Santos-Guerra, A., Boerner, E. Zimmer, E.A. (2004) Molecular phylogenetic evidence for the geographic origin and classification of Canary Island Lotus (Fabaceae: Loteae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 32, 123 138.
2. Ancoechea, E., Hernán, F., Huertas, M.J., Brändle, J.L. Herrera, R. (2006) A new chronostratigraphical and evolutionary model for La Gomera: implications for the overall evolution of the Canarian Archipelago. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 157, 271 293.
3. Anguita, F. Hernán, F. (1975) A propagating fracture versus a hotspot origin for the Canary Islands. Earth Planetary Science Letters, 27, 11 19.
4. Anguita, F. Hernán, F. (2000) The Canary Islands origin: a unifying model. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 103, 1 26.
5. Araña, V. Ortiz, R. (1991) The Canary Islands: tectonics, magmatism and geodynamic framework. Magmatism in extensional structural settings - The Phanerozoic African Plate (ed. by A.B. Kampunzu R.T. Lubala pp. 209 249. Springer, New York.
6. Arensburger, P., Buckley, T.R., Simon, C., Moulds, M. Holsinger, K.E. (2004) Biogeography and phylogeny of the New Zealand cicada genera (Hemiptera, Cicadidae) based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA data. Journal of Biogeography, 31, 557 569.
7. Azeria, E., Sanmartín, I., As, S., Carlson, A. Burgués, N. (2007) Biogeographical patterns of the East African coastal forest vertebrate fauna. Biodiversity and Conservation, 16, 883 912.
8. Barber, J.C., Francisco-Ortega, J., Santos-Guerra, A., Marrero, A. Jansen, R.K. (2000) Evolution of endemic Sideritis (Lamiaceae) in Macaronesia: insights from a chloroplast DNA restriction site analysis. Systematic Botany, 25, 633 647.
9. Barber, J.C., Finch, C.C., Francisco-Ortega, J., Santos-Guerra, A. Jansen, R.K. (2007) Hybridization in Macaronesian Sideritis (Lamiaceae): evidence from incongruence of multiple independent nuclear and chloroplast sequence datasets. Taxon, 56, 74 88.
10. Baum, D.A., Small, R.L. Wendel, J.F. (1998) Biogeography and floral evolution of baobabs (Adansonia, Bombaceae) as inferred from multiple data sets. Systematic Biology, 47, 181 207.
11. Beerli, P. (2006) Comparison of Bayesian and maximum likelihood inference of population genetic parameters. Bioinformatics, 22, 341 345.
12. Beerli, P. Felsenstein, J. (1999) Maximum likelihood estimation of migration rates and effective population numbers in two populations using a coalescent approach. Genetics, 152, 763 773.
13. Beerli, P. Felsenstein, J. (2001) Maximum likelihood estimation of a migration matrix and effective population sizes in n populations by using a coalescent approach. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 98, 4563 4568.
14. Bell, C.D. Donoghue, M.J. (2005) Dating the Dipsacales: comparing models, genes and evolutionary implications. American Journal of Botany, 92, 284 296.
15. Briggs, J.C. (2006) Proximate sources of marine biodiversity. Journal of Biogeography, 33, 1 10.
16. Brooks, D.R. (2005) Historical biogeography in the age of complexity: expansion and integration. Revista Mexicana de Biodiversidad, 76, 79 94.
17. Brooks, D.R. McLennan, D.A. (2001) A comparison of a discovery-based and an event-based method of historical biogeography. Journal of Biogeography, 28, 757 767.
18. Brooks, D.R., Van Veller, M.G.P. McLennan, D.A. (2001) How to do BPA, really. Journal of Biogeography, 28, 343 358.
19. Brown, J.H. Lomolino, M.V. (2000) Concluding remarks: historical perspective and the future of the island biogeography theory. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 9, 87 92.
20. Carine, M.A., Russell, S.J., Santos-Guerra, A. Francisco-Ortega, J. (2004) Relationships of the Macaronesian and Mediterranean floras: molecular evidence for multiple colonizations into Macaronesia and back-colonization of the continent in Convolvulus (Convolvulaceae). American Journal of Botany, 91, 1070 1085.
21. Carracedo, J.C., Day, S., Guillou, H., Rodríguez, E., Canas, J.A. Pérez, F.J. (1998) Hotspot volcanism close to a passive continental margin. Geological Magazine, 135, 591 604.
22. Coello, J., Cantagrel, J.M., Hernan, F., Fuster, J.M., Ibarrola, I., Ancoechea, E., Casquet, C., Jamond, C., Diaz de Teran, J.R. Cendero, A. (1992) Evolution of the eastern volcanic ridge of the Canary Islands based on new K-Ar data. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 53, 251 274.
23. Contreras-Díaz, H.G., Moya, O., Oromí, P. Juan, C. (2003) Phylogeography of the endangered darkling beetle species of Pimelia endemic to Gran Canaria (Canary Islands). Molecular Ecology, 12, 2131 2143.
24. Contreras-Díaz, H.G., Moya, O., Oromí, P. Juan, C. (2007) Evolution and diversification of the forest and hypogean ground-beetle genus Trechus in the Canary Islands. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 42, 687 699.
25. Cooper, A.C., Lalueza-Fox, C., Anderson, S., Rambaut, A., Austin, J. Ward, R. (2001) Complete mitochondrial genome sequences of two extinct moas clarify ratite evolution. Nature, 409, 704 707.
26. Cowie, R.H. Holland, B.S. (2006) Dispersal is fundamental to biogeography and the evolution of biodiversity in oceanic islands. Journal of Biogeography, 33, 193 198.
27. Donoghue, M.J. Smith, S.A. (2004) Patterns in the assembly of temperate forests around the Northern Hemisphere. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 359, 1633 1644.
28. Ebach, M.C., Humphries, C.J. Williams, D.M. (2003) Phylogenetic biogeography deconstructed. Journal of Biogeography, 30, 1258 1296.
29. Emerson, B.C. (2002) Evolution on oceanic islands: molecular phylogenetic approaches to understanding pattern and process. Molecular Ecology, 11, 951 966.
30. Emerson, B.C. Koln, N. (2005) Species diversity can drive speciation. Nature, 434, 1015 1017.
31. Emerson, B.C. Oromí, P. (2005) Diversification of the forest beetle genus Tarphius on the Canary Islands, and the evolutionary origins of island endemics. Evolution, 59, 586 598.
32. Emerson, B.C., Oromí, P. Hewitt, G.M. (2000a) Tracking colonization and diversification of insect lineages on islands: mitochondrial DNA phylogeography of Tarphius canariensis (Coleoptera: Colydiidae) on the Canary Islands. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 267, 2199 2205.
33. Emerson, B.C., Oromí, P. Hewitt, G.M. (2000b) Interpreting colonization of the Calathus (Coleoptera: Carabidae) on the Canary Islands and Madeira through the application of the parametric bootstrap. Evolution, 54, 2081 2090.
34. Felsenstein, J. (1981) Evolutionary trees from DNA sequences: a maximum likelihood approach. Journal of Molecular Evolution, 17, 368 376.
35. Fernández-Palacios, J.M. Andersson, C. (1993) Species composition and within archipelago co-occurrence patterns in the Canary Islands. Ecography, 16, 31 36.
36. Francisco-Ortega, J., Santos-Guerra, A., Kim, S.-C. Crawford, D.J. (2000) Plant genetic diversity in the Canary Islands: a conservation perspective. American Journal of Botany, 87, 909 919.
37. Francisco-Ortega, J., Barber, J.C., Santos-Guerra, A., Febles-Hernández, R. Jansen, R.K. (2001) Origin and evolution of the endemic genera of Gonosperminae (Asteraceae: Anthemideae) from the Canary Islands: evidence from nucleotide sequences of the internal transcribed spacers of the nuclear ribosomal DNA. American Journal of Botany, 88, 161 169.
38. Francisco-Ortega, J., Fuertes-Aguilar, J., Kim, S.C., Santos-Guerra, A., Crawford, D.J. Jansen, R.K. (2002) Phylogeny of the Macaronesian endemic Crambe section Dendrocrambe (Brassicaceae) based on internal transcribed spacer sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA. American Journal of Botany, 88, 161 169.
39. Funk, V.A. Wagner, W.L. (1995) Biogeographical patterns in the Hawaiian Islands. Hawaiian biogeography: evolution on a hot spot archipelago (ed. by W.L. Wagner V.A. Funk pp. 379 419. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
40. Goodson, B.E., Santos-Guerra, A. Jansen, R.K. (2006) Molecular systematics of Descurainia (Brassicaceae) in the Canary Islands: biogeographical and taxonomic implications. Taxon, 55, 671 682.
41. Guillou, H., Carracedo, J.C., Paris, R. Pérez Torrado, F.J. (2004) Implications for early shield-stage evolution of Tenerife from K/Ar ages and magnetic stratigraphy. Earth Planetary Science Letters, 222, 599 614.
42. Hanski, I. (1994) A practical model of metapopulation dynamics. Journal of Animal Ecology, 63, 151 162.
43. Hanski, I. (1998) Metapopulation dynamics. Nature, 396, 41 49.
44. Hanski, I. (2001) Spatially realistic theory of metapopulation ecology. Naturwissenschaften, 88, 372 381.
45. Heaney, L.R. (2000) Dynamic disequilibrium: a long-term, large-scale perspective on the equilibrium model of island biogeography. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 9, 59 74.
46. Herben, T., Suda, J. Munclinger, P. (2005) The ghost of hybridization past: niche pre-emption is not the only explanation of apparent monophyly in island endemics. Journal of Ecology, 93, 572 575.
47. Holder, M. Lewis, P.O. (2003) Phylogenetic estimation: traditional and Bayesian approaches. Nature Reviews, Genetics, 4, 275 284.
48. Holik, J.S., Rabinowitz, P.D. Austin, J.A. (1991) Effects of Canary hotspot volcanism on structure of oceanic crust off Morocco. Journal of Geophysical Research, 96, 12039 12067.
49. Huelsenbeck, J.P. Bollback, J.P. (2001) Empirical and hierarchical Bayesian estimation of ancestral states. Systematic Biology, 50, 351 366.
50. Huelsenbeck, J.P. Imennov, N.S. (2002) Geographic origin of human mitochondrial DNA: accommodating phylogenetic uncertainty and model comparison. Systematic Biology, 51, 155 165.
51. Huelsenbeck, J.P., Rannala, B. Larget, B. (2000) A Bayesian framework for the analysis of cospeciation. Evolution, 54, 352 364.
52. Humphries, C.J. Parenti, L. (1999) Cladistic biogeography: interpreting patterns of plant and animal distribution. Oxford University Press, New York.
53. Izquierdo, I., Martín, J.L., Zurita, N. Arechavaleta, M. (2001) Lista de especies silvestres de Canarias (hongos, plantas, y animales terrestres). Consejería de Medio Ambiente y Ordenación Territorial, Gobierno de Canarias.
54. Juan, C., Oromí, P. Hewitt, G.M. (1995) Mitochondrial DNA phylogeny and sequential colonization of Canary Islands by darkling beetles of the genus Pimelia (Tenebrionidae). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 261, 173 180.
55. Juan, C., Ibrahim, K.M., Oromí, P. Hewitt, G.M. (1998) The phylogeography of the darkling beetle, Hegeter politus, in the eastern Canary Islands. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 265, 135 140.
56. Juan, C., Emerson, B.C., Oromí, P. Hewitt, G.M. (2000) Colonization and diversification: towards a phylogeographic synthesis for the Canary Islands. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 15, 104 109.
57. Jukes, T. Cantor, C. (1969) Evolution on protein molecules. Mammalian protein metabolism (ed. by H. Munro pp. 21 132. Academic Press, New York.
58. Kass, R.E. Raftery, A.E. (1995) Bayes factors. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 90, 86 93.
59. Kim, S.C., Crawford, D.J., Francisco-Ortega, J. Santos-Guerra, A. (1996) A common origin for woody Sonchus and five related genera in the Macaronesian islands: molecular evidence for extensive radiation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 93, 7743 7748.
60. Lewis, P.O. (2001) A likelihood approach to estimating phylogeny from discrete morphological character data. Systematic Biology, 50, 913 925.
61. Lomolino, M.V. (2000) A call for a new paradigm in island biogeography. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 9, 1 9.
62. Lomolino, M.V., Brown, J.H. Davis, R. (1989) Island biogeography of montane forest mammals in the American Southwest. Ecology, 70, 180 194.
63. Lomolino, M.V., Riddle, B.R. Brown, J.H. (2005) Biogeography, 3rd edn. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.
64. Lynch, J.D. (1989) The gauge of speciation: on the frequencies of modes of speciation. Speciation and its consequences (ed. by D. Otte J.A. Endler pp. 527 553. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.
65. MacArthur, R.H. Wilson, E.O. (1967) The theory of island biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
66. McDowall, R.M. (2004) What biogeography is: a place for process. Journal of Biogeography, 31, 345 351.
67. McGlone, M.S. (2005) Goodbye Gondwana. Journal of Biogeography, 32, 739 740.
68. Meimberg, H., Abele, T., Bräuchler, C., McKay, J.C., Pérez de la Paz, P.L. Heubl, G. (2006) Molecular evidence for adaptive radiation of Micromeria Benth. (Lamiaceae) on the Canary Islands as inferred from chloroplast and nuclear DNA sequences and ISSR fingerprint data. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 41, 566 578.
69. Mooers, A.O. Schluter, D. (1999) Reconstructing ancestor states with maximum likelihood: support for one- and two-rate models. Systematic Biology, 48, 623 633.
70. Moore, M.J., Francisco-Ortega, J., Santos-Guerra, A. Jansen, R.K. (2002) Chloroplast DNA evidence for the roles of island colonization and extinction in Tolpis (Asteraceae: Lactuceae). American Journal of Botany, 89, 518 526.
71. Mort, M.E., Soltis, D.E., Soltis, P.S., Francisco-Ortega, J. Santos-Guerra, A. (2001) Phylogenetic relationships and evolution of Crassulaceae inferred from matK sequence data. American Journal of Botany, 88, 76 91.
72. Moya, O., Contreras-Díaz, H.G., Oromí, P. Juan, C. (2006) Using statistical phylogeography to infer population history: case studies on Pimelia darkling beetles from the Canary Islands. Journal of Arid Environments, 66, 477 497.
73. Nelson, G. Platnick, N.I. (1981) Systematics and biogeography: cladistics and vicariance. Columbia University Press, New York.
74. Nepokroeff, M., Sytsma, K.J., Wagner, W.L. Zimmer, E.A. (2003) Reconstructing ancestral patterns of colonization and dispersal in the Hawaiian understorey tree genus Psychotria (Rubiaceae): a comparison of parsimony and likelihood approaches. Systematic Biology, 52, 820 838.
75. Newton, M.A. Raftery, A.E. (1994) Approximate Bayesian inference by the weighted likelihood bootstrap (with discussion). Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B (Methodological), 56, 3 48.
76. Nylander, J.A.A., Ronquist, F., Huelsenbeck, J.P. Nieves-Aldrey, J.L. (2004) Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of combined data. Systematic Biology, 53, 47 67.
77. Olsson, U., Alström, P., Gelang, M., Ericsson, P.G. Sundberg, P. (2006) Phylogeography of Indonesian and Sino-Himalayan bush warblers (Cettia, Aves). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 41, 556 561.
78. Outlaw, D.C., Voelker, G., Mila, B. Jirman, D.J. (2003) Evolution of long-distance migration and historical biogeography of Catharus thrushes: a molecular phylogenetic approach. The Auk, 120, 299 310.
79. Page, R.D.M. (1995) Parallel phylogenies: reconstructing the history of host-parasite assemblages. Cladistics, 10, 155 173.
80. Page, R.D.M. (2003) Introduction. Tangled trees: phylogeny, cospeciation and evolution (ed. by R.D.M. Page pp. 1 22. Chicago University Press, Chicago, MI.
81. Page, R.D.M. Charleston, M.A. (1998) Trees within trees: phylogeny and historical associations. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 13, 356 359.
82. Pagel, M.A. (1994) Detecting correlated evolution on phylogenies: a general method for the comparative analysis of discrete characters. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 255, 37 45.
83. Pagel, M.A. (1999) The maximum likelihood approach to reconstructing ancestral character states on phylogenies. Systematic Biology, 48, 612 622.
84. Pagel, M.A., Meade, A. Barker, D. (2004) Bayesian estimation of ancestral character states on phylogenies. Systematic Biology, 53, 673 684.
85. Paris, R., Guillou, H., Carracedo, J.C. Pérez-Torrado, F.J. (2005) Volcanic and morphological evolution of La Gomera (Canary Islands), based on new K-Ar ages and magmatic stratigraphy: implications for oceanic island evolution. Journal of the Geological Society (London), 162, 501 512.
86. Percy, D.M. (2003) Radiation, diversity and host-plant interactions among island and continental legume-feeding psyllids. Evolution, 57, 2540 2556.
87. Percy, D.M. Cronk, Q.C.B. (2002) Different fates of island brooms: contrasting evolution in Adenocarpus, Genista and Teline (Genisteae, Fabaceae) in the Canary Islands and Madeira. American Journal of Botany, 89, 854 864.
88. de Queiroz, A. (2005) The resurrection of oceanic dispersal in historical biogeography. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 20, 68 73.
89. Rambaut, A. Drummond, A.J. (2005) Tracer. MCMC trace analysis tool. Version 1.3. http://evolve.zoo.ox.ac.uk. Last accessed January 2008.
90. Ree, R.H., Moore, B.R., Webb, C.O. Donoghue, M.J. (2005) A likelihood framework for inferring the evolution of geographic range on phylogenetic trees. Evolution, 59, 2299 2311.
91. Rees, D.J., Emerson, B.C., Oromí, P. Hewitt, G.M. (2001) The diversification of the genus Nesotes (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in the Canary Islands: evidence from mtDNA. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 21, 321 326.
92. Renner, S.S. (2004) Plant dispersal across the tropical Atlantic by wind and sea currents. International Journal of Plant Science, 165 (Suppl. S23 S33.
93. Riddle, B.R. (2005) Is biogeography emerging from its identity crisis? Journal of Biogeography, 32, 185 186.
94. Roderick, G.K. Gillespie, R.G. (1998) Speciation and phylogeography of Hawaiian terrestrial arthropods. Molecular Ecology, 7, 519 531.
95. Ronquist, F. (1995) Reconstructing the history of host-parasite associations using generalized parsimony. Cladistics, 11, 73 89.
96. Ronquist, F. (1997) Dispersal-vicariance analysis: a new approach to the quantification of historical biogeography. Systematic Biology, 46, 195 203.
97. Ronquist, F. (1998) Phylogenetic approaches in coevolution and biogeography. Zoologica Scripta, 26, 313 322.
98. Ronquist, F. (2003) Parsimony analysis of coevolving species associations. Tangled trees: phylogeny, cospeciation and coevolution (ed. by R.D.M. Page pp. 22 64. Chicago University Press, Chicago, MI.
99. Ronquist, F. (2004) Bayesian inference of character evolution. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 19, 475 481.
100. Ronquist, F. Huelsenbeck, J.P. (2003) MrBayes 3. Bayesian phylogenetic inference under mixed models. Bioinformatics, 19, 1572 1574.
101. Rosenzweig, M.L. (1995) Species diversity in space and time. Cambridge University Press, New York.
102. Sanmartín, I. (2006) Event-based biogeography: integrating patterns, processes, and time. Biogeography in a changing world (ed. by M.C. Ebach R.S. Tangney pp. 135 159. The Systematics Association Special Volume Series 70. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis, London.
103. Sanmartín, I. Ronquist, F. (2002) New solutions to old problems: widespread taxa, redundant distributions and missing areas in event-based biogeography. Animal Biodiversity and Conservation, 25, 75 93.
104. Sanmartín, I. Ronquist, F. (2004) Southern hemisphere biogeography inferred by event-based models: plant versus animal patterns. Systematic Biology, 53, 216 243.
105. Sanmartín, I., Enghoff, H. Ronquist, F. (2001) Patterns of animal dispersal, vicariance and diversification in the Holarctic. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 73, 345 390.
106. Sanmartín, I., Wanntorp, L. Winkworth, R.C. (2007) West Wind Drift revisited: testing for directional dispersal in Southern Hemisphere using event-based tree fitting. Journal of Biogeography, 34, 398 416.
107. Santos-Guerra, A. (2001) Flora vascular nativa. Naturaleza de las Islas Canarias. Ecología y conservación (ed. by J.M. Fernández-Palacios J.M. Martín-Esquivel pp. 185 198. Publicaciones Turquesa, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain.
108. Schluter, D., Price, T., Mooers, A.O. Ludwig, D. (1997) Likelihood of ancestor states in adaptive radiation. Evolution, 51, 1699 1711.
109. Schoener, T.W. Schoener, A. (1983) Distribution of vertebrates on some very small islands. I. Occurrence sequences of individual species. Journal of Animal Ecology, 52, 209 235.
110. Schultz, T.R., Cocroft, R.B. Churchill, G.A. (1996) The reconstruction of ancestral character states. Evolution, 50, 504 511.
111. Silvertown, J. (2004) The ghost of competition past in the phylogeny of island endemic plants. Journal of Ecology, 92, 168 173.
112. Tavaré, S. (1986) Some probabilistic and statistical problems in the analysis of DNA sequences. Lectures on Mathematics in the Life Sciences, 17, 57 86.
113. Thorpe, R.S., McGregor, D.P. Cumming, A.M. (1993) Molecular phylogeny of the Canary Island lazertids (Gallotia): mitochondrial DNA restriction fragment divergence in relation to sequence divergence and geological time. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 6, 725 735.
114. Trusty, J.L., Olmstead, R.G., Santos-Guerra, A., Sa-Fontinha, S. Francisco-Ortega, J. (2005) Molecular phylogenetics of the Macaronesian-endemic genus Bystropogon (Lamiaceae): palaeo-islands, ecological shifts and interisland colonizations. Molecular Ecology, 14, 1177 1189.
115. Van Veller, M.G.P., Brooks, D.R. Zandee, M. (2003) Cladistic and phylogenetic biogeography: the art and the science of discovery. Journal of Biogeography, 30, 319 329.
116. Vences, M., Vieites, D.R., Glaw, F., Brinkmann, H., Kosuch, J., Veith, M. Meyer, A. (2003) Multiple overseas dispersal in amphibians. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 270, 2435 2442.
117. Wahlberg, N., Klemetti, T. Hanski, I. (2002) Dynamic populations in a dynamic landscape: the metapopulation structure of the marsh fritillary butterfly. Ecography, 25, 224 232.
118. Waters, J.M., Dijkstra, L.H. Wallis, G.P. (2000) Biogeography of a Southern Hemisphere freshwater fish: how important is marine dispersal? Molecular Ecology, 9, 1815 1821.
119. Whittaker, R.J. (1998) Island biogeography: ecology, evolution and conservation. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
120. Wilson, J.T. (1963) A possible origin of the Hawaiian Islands. Canadian Journal of Physics, 41, 863 870.
121. Winkworth, R.C., Wagstaff, S.J., Glenny, D. Lockhart, P.J. (2002) Plant dispersal N.E.W.S. from New Zealand. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 17, 514 520.
122. Wojcicki, M. Brooks, D.R. (2005) PACT: an efficient and powerful algorithm for generating area cladograms. Journal of Biogeography, 32, 185 186.