Management of community-acquired pneumonia in children

Pediatric Drugs

Volumn 9, Issue 6, 2007, Pages 401-411

  Chetty, Krishne ^a   Thomson, Anne H ^a  

^a JOHN RADCLIFFE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Amoxicillin clavulanic acid, therapeutic use; Ampicillin, therapeutic use; Analgesics, therapeutic use; Antibacterials, therapeutic use; Antipyretics, therapeutic use; Azithromycin, therapeutic use; Cefaclor, therapeutic use; Children

Indexed keywords

AMOXICILLIN; AMOXICILLIN PLUS CLAVULANIC ACID; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; AZITHROMYCIN; CEFUROXIME; CHLORAMPHENICOL; CODEINE; COTRIMOXAZOLE; ERYTHROMYCIN; GENTAMICIN; IBUPROFEN; MACROLIDE; MENINGOCOCCUS VACCINE; PARACETAMOL; PENICILLIN G; PENICILLIN V; PLACEBO; PNEUMOCOCCAL CONJUGATE VACCINE 7; PNEUMOCOCCUS VACCINE; PROCAINE PENICILLIN; RETINOL; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; ZINC;

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY; BACTERIAL PNEUMONIA; BLOOD CULTURE; CHILDHOOD DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMMUNITY ACQUIRED PNEUMONIA; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG TREATMENT FAILURE; ECHOGRAPHY; EMPYEMA; FEVER; FIBRINOLYTIC THERAPY; HUMAN; INFECTION PREVENTION; LUNG ABSCESS; MICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION; MONOTHERAPY; MORBIDITY; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; OXYGEN SATURATION; OXYGEN THERAPY; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PATIENT MONITORING; PHYSIOTHERAPY; PNEUMATOCELE; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PRESCRIPTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEROLOGY; SEROPREVALENCE; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; SYMPTOM; THORACOSCOPY; THORAX DRAINAGE; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY; TREATMENT DURATION; TREATMENT INDICATION; TREATMENT PLANNING; TREATMENT RESPONSE;

ADOLESCENT; ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; COMMUNITY-ACQUIRED INFECTIONS; DRUG RESISTANCE, BACTERIAL; EMPYEMA, PLEURAL; FIBRINOLYTIC AGENTS; HUMANS; INFANT; INFANT, NEWBORN; MENINGOCOCCAL VACCINES; PLEURAL EFFUSION; PNEUMOCOCCAL VACCINES; PNEUMONIA, BACTERIAL; STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE; THORACIC SURGERY, VIDEO-ASSISTED; VACCINES, CONJUGATE;

EID: 36749101984     PISSN: 11745878     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00148581-200709060-00007     Document Type: Review

References (71)

1. Mandell LA, Marrie TJ, Grossmann RF, et al. Canadian guidelines for initial management of community-acquired pneumonia: an evidence-based update by the Canadian Infecious Diseases Society and the Canadian Thoracic Society. The Canadian Community-Acquired Pneumonia Working Group. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31 (2): 383-42
2. British Thoracic Society. British Thoracic Society guidelines for management of community acquired pneumonia in childhood. Thorax 2002; 57 Suppl. 1: i1-24
3. Zar HJ, Jeena P, Argent A, et al., Working Groups of the Paediatric Assembly of the South African Thoracic Society. Diagnosis and management of community-acquired pneumonia in childhood: South African Thoracic Society guidelines. S Afr Med J 2005; 95 (12 Pt 2): 977-90
4. McIntosh K. Community acquired pneumonia in children. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 430-7
5. Jokien C, Heiskanen L, Juvoenen H. Incidence of community acquired pneumonia in the population of four municipalities in Eastern Finland. Am J Epidemiol 1993; 137: 977-88
6. Weigl JA, Puppe W, Belke O, et al. Population-based incidence of severe pneumonia in children in Kiel, Germany. Klin Padiatr 2005; 217 (4): 211-9
7. Bryce J, Boschi-Pinto C, Shibuya K, et al. WHO estimates of the causes of death in children. Lancet 2005; 365: 1147-52
8. Clements H, Stephenson T, Gabriel V, et al. Rationalised prescribing for community-acquired pneumonia: a closed loop audit. Arch Dis Child 2000; 83: 320-4
9. Gendrel D, Raymond J, Moulin F, et al. Etiology and response to antibiotic therapy of community-acquired pneumonia in French children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1997; 16: 388-91
10. Juven T, Mertsola J, Waris M, et al. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in 254 hospitalised children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000; 19: 293-8
11. Drummond P, Clark J, Wheeler J, et al. Community acquired pneumonia: a prospective UK study. Arch Dis Child 2000; 83 (5): 408-12
12. Michelow IC, Olsen K, Lozano J, et al. Epidemiology and clinical characteristics of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized children. Pediatrics 2004; 113 (4): 701-7
13. Don M, Fasoli L, Paldanius M, et al. Aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia: serological results of a paediatric survey. Scand J Infect Dis 2005; 37 (11-12): 806-12
14. Poehling KA, Lafleur BJ, Szilagyi PG, et al. Population-based impact of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in young children. Pediatrics 2004; 114 (3): 755-61
15. Esposito S, Blasi F, Bellini F, et al. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae infections in children with pneumonia. Eur Respir J 2001; 17: 241-5
16. Somer A, Salman N. Role of Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae in children with community-acquired pneumonia in Istanbul, Turkey. J Trop Pediatr 2006; 52 (3): 173-8
17. World Health Organization. The management of acute respiratory infections in children. In: Practical guidelines for outpatient care. Geneva: WHO, 1995
18. Palafox M, Guiscafre H, Reyes H, et al. Dignostic value of tachypnea in pneumonia defined radiologically. Arch Dis Child 2000; 82: 41-5
19. Hansen J, Black S, Shinefield H, et al. Effectiveness of heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in children younger than 5 years of age for prevention of pneumonia: updated analysis using World Health Organization standardized interpretation of chest radiographs. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2006; 25 (9): 779-81
20. Swingler GH, Zwarenstein M. Chest radiograph in acute respiratory infections in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000; (2): CD001268
21. Virkki R, Juven T, Mertsola J, et al. Radiological follow-up of pneumonia in children. Ped Pulm 2005; 40 (3): 223-7
22. Korppi M, Heiskanen-Kosma T, Leionen M. White blood cells, C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate in pneumococcal pneumonia in children. Eur Respir J 1997; 10: 1125-9
23. Virkki R, Juven T, Rikalainen H, et al. Differentiation of bacterial and viral pneumonia in children. Thorax 2002; 57: 438-41
24. Korppi M. Non-specific host response markers in the differentiation between pneumococcal and viral pneumonia: what is the most accurate combination? Pediatr Int 2004; 46 (5): 545-50
25. Korppi M, Katila ML, Kalliokoski R, et al. Pneumococcal finding in a sample from upper airways does not indicate pneumococcal infection in lower airways. Scand J Infect Dis 1992; 24 (4): 445-51
26. Ruuuskanen O, Nohynek H, Ziegler T, et al. Pneumonia in childhood: etiology and response to antimicrobial therapy. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1992; 11: 217-23
27. Navarro D, Garcia-Maset L, Gimeno C, et al., Spanish Pneumococcal Infection Study Network. Performance of the Binax NOW Streptococcus pneumoniae urinary antigen assay for diagnosis of pneumonia in children with underlying pulmonary diseases in the absence of acute pneumococcal infection. J Clin Microbiol 2004 Oct; 42 (10): 4853-5
28. Requejo HI, Guerra MI, Dos Santos M, et al. Immunodiagnoses of community-acquired pneumonia in childhood. J Trop Pediatr 1997; 43: 208-12
29. Smyth A, Carty H, Hart CA. Clinical predictors of hypoxaemia in children with pneumonia. Ann Trop Paediatr 1998; 18: 31-40
30. Haviv M, Haver E, Lichstein D, et al. Atrial natriuretic peptite in children with pneumonia. Pediatr Pulmonol 2005; 40 (4): 306-9
31. Huiming Y, Chaomin W, Meng M. Vitamin A for treating measles in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005; (4): CD001479
32. Brown N, Roberts C. Vitamin A for acute respiratory infection in developing countries: a meta-analysis. Acta Paediatr 2004; 93 (11): 1437-42
33. Brooks WA, Yunus M, Santosham M, et al. Zinc for severe pneumonia in very young children: double-blind placebo-controlled trial. 2004; 363 (9422): 1683-8
34. Bose A, Coles CL, Gunavathi, et al. Efficacy of zinc in the treatment of severe pneumonia in hospitalized children <2y old. Am J Clin Nutr 2006; 83 (5): 1089-96
35. Chang AB, Torzillo PJ, Boyce NC, et al. Zince and vitamin A supplementation in Indigenous Australian children hospitalized with lower respiratory tract infection: a randomized controlled trial. Med J Aust 2006; 184 (3): 107-12
36. Friss B, Andersen P, Brenoe E, et al. Antibiotic treatment of pneumonia and bronchiolitis. A prospective randomized study. Arch Dis Child 1984; 59: 1038-45
37. Little P, Rumsby K, Kelly J, et al. Information leaflet and antibiotic prescribing strategies for acute lower respiratory tract infection. JAMA 2005; 293: 3029-35
38. Kabra SK, Lodha R, Pandey RM. Antibiotics for community acquired pneumonia in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006; (3): CD004874
39. Vuori-Holopainen E, Peltola H, Kallio MJ, SE-TU Study Group. Narrow-versus broad-spectrum parenteral antimicrobials against common infections of childhood: a prospective and randomised comparison between penicillin and cefuroxime. Eur J Pediatr 2000 Dec; 159 (12): 878-84
40. Manfredi R, Jannuzzi C, Mantero E, et al. Clinical comparative study of azithromycin versus erythromycin in treatment of acute respiratory tract infections in children. J Chemother 1992; 4: 364-70
41. Block S, Hendrick J, Hammerschlag MR, et al. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae in pediatric community-acquired pneumonia: comparative efficacy and safety of clarithromycin vs. erythromycin ethylsuccinate. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1995; 14: 471-7
42. Rojas MX, Granados C. Oral antibiotics versus parenteral antibiotics for severe pneumonia in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006; (2): CD004979
43. Campbell H, Byass P, Forgie IM, et al. Trial of co-trimoxazole versus procaine penicillin with ampicillin in treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in young Gambian children. Lancet 1988; 2 (8621): 1182-4
44. Addo-yobo E, Chisaka N, Hassan M, et al. APPIS Group. Oral amoxicillin versus injectable penicillin for severe pneumonia in children aged 3 to 59 months: a randomised multicentre equivalency study. Lancet 2004; 364 (9440): 1141-8
45. Atkinson M, Lakhanpaul M, Smyth A, et al. A multicenter randomised controlled equivalence trial comparing oral amoxicillin and intravenous benzylpenicillin for community acquired pneumonia in children: PIVOT trial. Thorax Online. Epub 2007 Jun 13
46. Agarwal G, Awasthi S, Kabra SK, et al. ISCAP Study Group. Three day versus five day treatment with amoxicillin for non-severe pneumonia in young children: a multicentre randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2004; 328 (7443): 791-4
47. Hazir T, Quasi S, Nisar YB. Comparison of standard versus double dose of amoxicillin in the treatment of son-severe pneumonia in children aged 2-59 months: a multicentre, double blind, randomized controlled trial in Pakistan. Arch Dis Child 2007; 92 (4): 291-7
48. Melander E, Ekdahl K, Jonsson G, et al. Frequency of penicillin-resistant pneumococci in children is correlated to community utilization of antibiotics. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000; 19 (12): 1172-7
49. Guillemot D, Varon E, Bernede C, et al. Reducion of antibiotic use in the community reduces the rate of colonization with penicillin g-nonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae. Clin Infect Dis 2005 Oct; 14 (7): 930-8
50. Kellner JD. Drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae infections: clinical importance, drug treatment and prevention. Semin Resp Infect 2001; 16: 186-95
51. Deeks SL, Palacio R, Ruvinsky R, et al. Risk factors and course of illness among children with invasive penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. The Streptococcus pneumoniae Working Group. Pediatrics 1999; 103: 409-13
52. Amsden GW. Pneumococcal macrolide resistance: myth or reality. J Antimicrob 1999; 44: 1-6
53. Seppala H, Klaukka T, Vuopio-Varkila J, et al. The effect of changes in the consumption of macrolide antibiotics on erythromycin resistance in group A streptococci in Finland. Finnish Study Group for Antimicrobial Resistance. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 441-6
54. Byington CL, Spencer LY, Johnson TA, et al. An epidemiological investigation of a sustained high rate of pediatric parapneumonic empyema: risk factors and microbiological associations. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34: 434-40
55. Rees JH, Spencer DA, Parikh D, et al. Increase in incidence of childhood empyema in West Midlands, UK [letter]. Lancet 1997; 349: 402
56. Byington CL, Korgenski K, Daky J, et al. Impact of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on pneumococcal parapneumonic empyema. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2006; 24: 250-4
57. Donnelly LF, Klosterman LA. CT appearance of parapneumonic effusions in children: findings are not specific for empyema. Am J Roentgenol 1997; 169: 179-82
58. Avansino JR, Dennis TR, Spallone P, et al. Primary operative versus nonoperative therapy for pediatric empyema: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2005; 115: 1652-9
59. Thomson AH, Hull J, Kumar MR, et al. Randomised trial of intrapleural urokinase in the treatment of childhood empyema. Thorax 2002; 57: 343-7
60. Barnes NP, Hull J, Thomson AH. Medical management of parapneumonic pleural disease. Pediatr Pulmonol 2006; 39: 127-34
61. Wells RG, Havens PL. Intrapleural fibrinolysis for parapneumonic effusion and empyema in children. Radiology 2003; 228: 370-8
62. Sonnappa S, Cohen G, Owens C, et al. Comparison of urokinase and video-assisted thorascopic surgery for treatment of childhood empyema. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 174: 221-7
63. Kurt BA, Winterhalter KM, Connors RH, et al. Therapy of parapneumonic effusions in children: video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery versus conventional thoracostomy drainage. Pediatrics 2006; 118: 547-53
64. Gates RL, Hogan M, Weinstein S, et al. Drainage, fibrinolytics, or surgery: a comparison of treatment options in pediatric empyema. J Pediatr Surg 2004; 39: 1638-42
65. Suchar AM, Zureikat AH, Glynn L, et al. Ready for the frontline: is early thoracoscopic decortication the new standard of care for advanced pneumonia with empyema? Am Surg 2006; 72: 688-92
66. Chang YT, Dai ZK, Lao EL, et al. Thoracoscopic decortication: first-line therapy for pediatric empyema. Eur Surg Res 2005; 37: 18-21
67. Cohen G, Hjortdal V, Ricci M, et al. Primary thoracoscopic treatment of empyema in children. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2003; 125: 79-84
68. Tseng Yl, Wu MH, Lin MY, et al. Surgery for lung abscess in immunocompetent an immunocompromised patients. J Pediatr Surg 2001; 36: 470-3
69. Sleeman K, Knox K, George R, et al. Invasive pneumococcal disease in England and Wales: vaccination implication. J Infect Dis 2001; 183: 239-46
70. Black SB, Shinefiel HR, Ling S, et al. Effectiveness of heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in children younger than 5 years of age for prevention of pneumonia. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2001; 21: 810-5
71. Esposito S, Lizioli A, Lastrico A, et al. Impact on respiratory tract infections of heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine administered at 3, 5 and 11 months of age. Respir Res 2007; 21 (8): 12-20