Hostile and Benevolent Reactions Toward Pregnant Women: Complementary Interpersonal Punishments and Rewards That Maintain Traditional Roles

Journal of Applied Psychology

Volumn 92, Issue 6, 2007, Pages 1499-1511

  Hebl, Michelle R ^a   King, Eden B ^b   Glick, Peter ^c   Singletary, Sarah L ^a   Kazama, Stephanie ^a  

^a RICE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b GEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c LAWRENCE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

discrimination; pregnancy; sexism; women

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; ATTITUDE; FEMALE; HOSTILITY; HUMAN; HUMAN RELATION; MALE; PREGNANCY; REWARD; ROLE PLAYING; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY;

ADULT; ATTITUDE; FEMALE; HOSTILITY; HUMANS; INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS; MALE; PREGNANCY; PREJUDICE; REWARD; ROLE; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR;

EID: 36348944102     PISSN: 00219010     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.92.6.1499     Document Type: Article

References (59)

1. Altermatt, T. W. (2001). Chivalry: The relation between a cultural script and stereotypes about women. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
2. Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990, Pub. L. No. 101-336, 104 Stat. 327 (1991).
3. Bragger J.D., Kutcher E., Morgan J., and Firth P. The effects of the structured interview on reducing biases against pregnant job applicants. Sex Roles 46 (2002) 215-226
4. Cleveland J.N., Stockdale M., and Murphy K.R. Women and men in organizations: Sex and gender issues at work (2000), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ
5. Corse S.J. Pregnant managers and their subordinates: The effects of gender expectations on hierarchical relationships. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 26 (1990) 25-47
6. Cuddy A.J.C., Fiske S.T., and Glick P. When professionals become mothers, warmth doesn't cut the ice. Journal of Social Issues 60 (2004) 701-718
7. Deutsch F.M. Status, sex and smiling in men and women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 16 (1990) 531-540
8. Deutsch F.M., and Saxon S.E. Traditional ideologies, nontraditional lives. Sex Roles 38 (1998) 331-362
9. Dovidio J.F., Gaertner S.L., Kawakami K., and Hodson G. Why can't we just get along? Interpersonal biases and interracial distrust. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 8 (2002) 88-102
10. Dovidio J.F., Kawakami K., and Gaertner S.L. Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82 (2002) 62-68
11. Dovidio J., Kawakami K., Johnson C., Johnson B., and Howard A. The nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 33 (1997) 510-540
12. Eagly A.H. Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation (1987), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ
13. Eagly A.H., and Karau S.J. Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review 109 (2002) 573-598
14. Eagly A.H., and Mladinic A. Are people prejudiced against women? Some answers from research on attitudes, gender stereotypes and judgments of competence. In: Stroebe W., and Hewstone M. (Eds). European review of social psychology 5 (1994), Wiley, New York 1-35
15. Ekman P., Friesen W.V., and O'Sullivan M. Smiles when lying. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (1988) 414-420
16. Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, 29 U.S.C. § 2601 (1993).
17. Fiske S.T., Cuddy A.J.C., Glick P., and Xu J. A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82 (2002) 878-902
18. Franco K., Evans C.L., Best A.P., Zrull J.P., and Pizza G.A. Conflicts associated with physicians' pregnancies. American Journal of Psychiatry 140 (1983) 902-904
19. Gardin S.K., and Richwald G.A. Pregnancy and employment leave: Legal precedents and future policy. Journal of Public Health Policy 7 (1986) 458-469
20. Glick P., Diebold J., Bailey-Werner B., and Zhu L. The two faces of Adam: Ambivalent sexism and polarized attitudes toward women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23 (1997) 1323-1334
21. Glick P., and Fiske S.T. The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70 (1996) 491-512
22. Glick P., and Fiske S.T. An ambivalent alliance: Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. American Psychologist 56 (2001) 109-118
23. Glick P., Fiske S.T., Mladinic A., Saiz J.L., Abrams D., Masser B., Adetoun B., et al. Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 (2000) 763-775
24. Glick P., Lameiras M., Fiske S.T., Eckes T., Masser B., Volpato C., Manganelli A.M., et al. Bad but bold: Ambivalent attitudes toward men predict gender inequality in 16 nations. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 86 (2004) 713-728
25. Glick P., Wilk K., and Perreault M. Images of occupations: Components of gender and status in occupational stereotypes. Sex Roles 32 (1995) 565-582
26. Gueutal H.G., and Taylor E.M. Employee pregnancy: The impact on organizations, pregnant employees and co-workers. Journal of Business and Psychology 5 (1991) 459-476
27. Haddock G., and Zanna M.P. Preferring "housewives" to "feminists": Categorization and the favorability of attitudes toward women. Psychology of Women Quarterly 18 (1994) 25-52
28. Hall J.A. Nonverbal sex differences: Communication accuracy and expressive style (1984), Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
29. Hall J.A. Nonverbal sex differences: Accuracy of communication and expressive style (1990), Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
30. Halpert J.A., and Burg J.H. Mixed messages: Co-worker responses to the pregnant employee. Journal of Business and Psychology 12 (1997) 241-253
31. Halpert J.A., Wilson M.L., and Hickman J.L. Pregnancy as a source of bias in performance appraisals. Journal of Organizational Behavior 14 (1993) 649-663
32. Hebl M., Foster J.B., Mannix L.M., and Dovidio J.F. Formal and interpersonal discrimination: A field study of bias toward homosexual applications. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (2002) 815-825
33. Henley N.M. Body politics: Power, sex, and nonverbal communication (1977), Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
34. Hess-Strauthamer J.C. The first pregnancy: An integrating principle in female psychology (1985), UMI Research Press, Ann Arbor, MI
35. James L.R., Demaree R.G., and Wolf G. Estimating with-in group interrater reliability with and without response bias. Journal of Applied Psychology 69 (1984) 85-98
36. Jones E.E., and Harris V.A. The attribution of attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 3 (1967) 1-24
37. King E., Shapiro J.L., Hebl M., Singletary S., and Turner S. The stigma of obesity in customer service: A mechanism for remediation and bottom-line consequences of interpersonal discrimination. Journal of Applied Psychology 91 (2006) 579-593
38. Kleck R.E., and Strenta A. Perceptions of the impact of negatively valued physical characteristics on social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (1980) 861-873
39. Klerman J.A., and Leibowitz A. Job continuity among new mothers. Demography 36 (1999) 145-155
40. Macrae C.N., Bodenhausen G.V., Milne A.B., and Jetten J. Out of mind but back in sight: Stereotypes on the rebound. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (1994) 808-817
41. Patterson M.L. Interpersonal distance, affect, and equilibrium theory. Journal of Social Psychology 101 (1977) 205-214
42. Patterson M.L. A sequential functional model of nonverbal exchange. Psychological Review 89 (1982) 231-249
43. Pattison H., and Gross H. Pregnancy, work and women's well-being: A review. Work & Stress 10 (1996) 72-87
44. Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, Pub. L. No. 95-555, 92 Stat. 2076 (1978).
45. Schultz J.B., and Henderson C. Family satisfaction and job performance: Implications for career development. Journal of Career Development 12 (1985) 33-47
46. Sheppard D.L. Organizations, power and sexuality: The image and self-image of women managers. In: Hearn J., Sheppard D.L., Tancred-Sheriff P., and Burrell G. (Eds). The sexuality of organization (1992), Sage, London 139-157
47. Slonaker W.M., and Wendt A.C. Pregnancy discrimination: An empirical analysis of a continuing problem. Labor Law Journal 42 (1991) 343-356
48. Smart L., and Wegner D.M. Covering up what can't be seen: Concealable stigma and mental control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999) 474-486
49. Smith J.A. Identity development during the transition to motherhood: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology 17 (1999) 281-299
50. Steele C. A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist 52 (1997) 613-629
51. Swim J.K., Aiken K.J., Hall W.S., and Hunter B.A. Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68 (1995) 199-214
52. Swiss D.J., and Walker J.P. Women and the work/family dilemma: How today's professional women are finding solutions (1993), Wiley, New York
53. Taylor S.E., and Langer E.J. Pregnancy: A social stigma?. Sex Roles 3 (1977) 27-35
54. Tiedens L.Z., and Fragale A.R. Power moves: Complementarity in dominant and submissive nonverbal behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (2003) 558-568
55. Valian V. Why so slow? The advancement of women (2000), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
56. Vescio T.K., Gervais S.J., Snyder M., and Hoover A. Power and the creation of patronizing environments: The stereotype-based behaviors of the powerful and their effects on female performance in masculine domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88 (2005) 658-672
57. Walton M.D., Sachs D., Ellington R., Hazlewood A., Griffin S., and Bass D. Physical stigma and the pregnancy role: Receiving help from strangers. Sex Roles 18 (1988) 323-331
58. Wilson L. Pregnancy discrimination in the workplace. In: Barnes A. (Ed). The handbook of women, psychology, and the law (2005), Wiley, Hoboken, NJ 124-146
59. Wolkind S., and Zajicek E. Pregnancy: A psychological and social study (1981), Grune & Stratton, New York