Sustaining authoritarianism in the Middle East and North Africa

Political Science Quarterly

Volumn 122, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 433-459

  King, Stephen J ^a  

^a GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34948822949     PISSN: 00323195     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/j.1538-165X.2007.tb00605.x     Document Type: Review

References (102)

1. Marsha Pripstein Posusney and Michele Penner Angrist, eds., Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Regimes and Resistance (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2005). I will not address cultural explanations that have already been the topic of much discussion.
2. For explanations of Middle East authoritarianism based on the underlying culture in the region, see Hisham Sharabi, Neopatriarchy (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1988);
3. Daniel Pipes, In the Path of God: Islam and Political Power (New York: Basic Books, 1983), Two recent empirical studies found that the cultural argument based on Islam did not hold.
4. See Steven Fish, "Islam and Authoritarianism," World Politics 55 (October 2002): 4-37;
5. Mark Tessler, "Islam and Democracy in the Middle East: The Impact of Religious Orientations on Attitudes towards Democracy in Four Arab Countries," Comparative Politics 34 (April 2002): 337-354.
6. Here the classic work is the multi-authored study led by Philippe Schmitter and Guillermo O'Donnell, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule.
7. See Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 4, 5. The authors do note that loosened structural parameters can be quickly tightened at the end of transition periods, which can culminate in either democratic or authoritarian outcomes.
8. On state parties, see Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995);
9. and Barbara Geddes "Authoritarian Breakdown: Empirical Test of a Game Theoretic Argument" (paper presented at the American Political Science Association, Atlanta, GA, 1999);
10. Jason Brownlee, "Ruling Parties and Durable Authoritarianism" (working paper 23, Center on Democracy, Development and the Rule of Law 2003).
11. Raymond Hinnebusch, "The Politics of Economic Liberalization: Comparing Egypt and Syria" in Hassan Hakimian and Ziba Moshaver, eds., The State and Global Change: The Political Economy of Transition in the Middle East and North Africa (Richmond, Surrey, UK: Curzon Press, 2001), 112.
12. Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991);
13. Vickie Langohr, "Too Much Civil Society, Too Little Politics: Egypt and Liberalizing Arab Regimes," Comparative Politics 36 (January 2004): 181-204;
14. Michael Hudson, "After the Gulf War: Prospects for Democratization in the Arab World," Middle East Journal 45 (Summer 1991): 407-426.
15. John Williamson, "What Washington Means By Policy Reform" in John Williamson ed., Latin American Adjustment: How Much Has Happened (Washington DC: World Bank, 1990), 7-20.
16. Clement M. Henry and Robert Springborg, Globalization and the Politics of Development in the Middle East (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 14-21.
17. William Zartman, "The State on a Tightrope: Institutionalization and Negotiation" in Dirk Vandewalle, ed., North Africa: Development and Reform in a Changing Global Economy (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), 230.
18. Adam Przeworski and Henry Teune, The Logic of Comparative Social Inquiry (Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger Publishing, 1970), 33.
19. John Waterbury, The Egypt of Nasser and Sadat: The Political Economy of Two Regimes (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 432.
20. United Nations Developmet Program Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, Arab Human Development Report, 2002. The Arab Human Development Report, jointly sponsored by the Regional Bureau for Arab States of the United Nations Development Program and the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development (Kuwait) and first published in 2002, has now become a series of four reports.
21. In an interview with Nader Fergany, lead author of the Arab Human Development Report, 2002-2005.
22. Henry and Springborg, Globalization and the Politics of Development, 154.
23. Hasanayin Tawfiq Ibrahim, Al-Iqtisad al-siyasi lil-ilsah al-iqtisadi (Cairo: Markaz al-Dirasat al Siyasiyya wa-al-Istratijiyya, 1999), 93, 94.
24. Ahmad al-Sayyid al-Najjar, al-iqtisad al-Misri: min tajrubat yulyu ila namudhaj al-mustaqbal (Cairo: Markaz al-Dirasat al-Siyasiyya wa-al-Istratijiyya, 2002), 147-162.
25. Layla al-Khawaja, ed., Taqrir al-tanmiya al-bashariyya fi Misr (Cairo: Markaz Dirasat waBuhuth al-Duwal al-Namiya, 2004).
26. Mahmud 'Abd Al-Fadli, quoted in "Qa'imat al-ihtikarat fi Misr: bay' al-sharikat li-mustathmir wahid yu'addi ila al-ihtikar," al-Ahali, 28 February 2001.
27. Ibid. "Hikayat Ahmad 'Izz ma'a sharikat al-Dikhila lil-Hadid wa-al-Sulb: fada'ih al-fasad wa-al-ihtikar fi sina'at al-sulb," al-Ahali, 2 August 2000.
28. "Ummal sharikat Tilimisr yasrukhun: man yunqidhuna min ghul al-khaskhasa?" al-Ahali, 16 May 2001.
29. "Al-Nasr lil-Mawasir al-Sulb shahid àayan àla fasad al-khaskhasa," al-Ahali, 18 July 2001.
30. "Fi al-Misriyya li-Tijarat al-Kimawiyyat wa-al-Ma'adin: al-Sharika al-Qabida lil-Tijara tarfud sarf mustahaqqat 2000 'amil kharaju lil-mas'ash al-mubbakir," al-Ahali, 6 November 2002.
31. Accessed at http://Free.Egyptians.4t.com/, July 2004.
32. Michael Lipton, Why Poor People Stay Poor: Urban Bias in World Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977);
33. Albert Berry and William Cline, Agrarian Structure and Productivity in Developing Countries (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Klaus Deininger, "Land Policy and Administration: Lessons Learned and New Challenges for the Bank's Agenda" (preliminary version of a paper for the World Bank Land Policy and Administration Thematic Group, 2000).
34. M. Riad El-Ghonemy, "The Political Economy of Market-Based Land Reform" (Popular Coalition/ UNRISD monograph, 4 June 1999), 14.
35. Stephen King, Liberalization Against Democracy: The Local Politics of Economic Reform in Tunisia (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2003), 126.
36. Personal communication with a Tunisian opposition journalist, July 2004. On the condition of anonymity, officials in the Tunisian U.S. embassy verify that elite corruption and the lack of transparency is the biggest criticism about the country's structural adjustment program.
37. Henry and Springbord, Globalization and the Politics of Development.
38. Muhammad Furati, "Al-khawsasa wa-in'ikasatiha al-ijtima'iyya," al-Mawqif, 17 October 2003.
39. King, Liberalization Against Democracy, 35-37.
40. World Bank, Republic of Tunisia: Growth Policies and Poverty Alleviation (Washington DC: World Bank, 1995), 26.
41. Ibid., 6, 7.
42. Brad Dillman, "The Political Economy of Structural Adjustment in Tunisia and Algeria," The Journal of North African Studies 3 (Autumn 1998): 1-24.
43. Brad Dillman, State and Private Sector in Algeria: The Politics of Rent-Seeking and Failed Development (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000), 3.
44. Accessed at http://www.al-fadjr.com/article.php?code-895, July 2005.
45. Henry and Springbord, Globalization and the Politics of Development, 119.
46. Salima Terranti, "Privatization of Agricultural Land in Algeria: More than Ten Years of Silent Debates" (presentation to Pan-African Program on Land and Resource Rights workshop, Cape Town, South African, 5-7 May, 2003).
47. A. Sharifa, "Fallahu al-Shalf yutalibun bi-milkiyyat al-'aradi allati yastaghillunaha," al-Fajr, 21 June 2004.
48. "Al-multaqa al-jihawi lil-ghuraf al-filahiyya li-wilayat gharb sa'ida," al-Fajr, 15 March 2004;
49. Layla Maslub, "'Uyahya yurid tajmid al-birnamij al-watani lil-tanmiya al-filahiyya," al-Fajr, 4 October 2004.
50. Volker Perthes, "The Syrian Private Industrial and Commercial Sectors and the State," International Journal of Middle East Studies 24 (May 1992): 207-230.
51. Ibid.
52. Ibid.;
53. Raymond Hinnebusch, "The Political Economy of Economic Liberalization in Syria," International Journal of Middle East Studies 27 (August 1995): 305-320.
54. Raymond Hinnebusch, "The Politics of Economic Liberalization," Third World Quarterly 18 (June 2001): 249-265.
55. Ibid., 134.
56. Ibid., 133.
57. Jihad As'ad Muhammad, "Halaqa jadida min musalsal al-khaskhasa al-hukumi," Kassioun Weekly, October 2004.
58. Anthony Shadid "Syria Heralds Reforms, But Many Have Doubts," The Washington Post, 18 May 2005.
59. "Madha yahduth fi Suriyya: hal bada'a bay' iqtisadina fi al-mazad al-'alani?" Kassioun Weekly, August 2004.
60. Mohammad Safi Abu-Dan, "Syrian Economics," Tishreen Daily, 27 October 2004.
61. El-Ghonemy, "The Political Economy";
62. Hanna Batatu, Syria's Peasantry, the Descendants of Its Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999).
63. Joel Beinen, Workers and Peasants in the Modern Middle East (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 145.
64. Volker Perthes, "A Look at Syria's Upper Class: The Bourgeoisie and the Ba'th," Middle East Report 170 (May-June 1991): 31-37.
65. Ibid.;
66. Perthes, "The Syrian Private Industrial and Commercial Sectors."
67. Perthes, "A Look at Syria's Upper Class."
68. Timothy Mitchell, "Dreamland: the Neoliberalism of Your Desires," Middle East Report 210 (Spring 1999): 28-33.
69. Eberhard Kienle, A Grand Delusion: Democracy and Economic Reform in Egypt (New York: I.B.Taurius, 2001), 156-170.
70. Eva Bellin, Stalled Democracy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002).
71. Eva Bellin, Stalled Democracy, 176-179.
72. 'Amr Hashim Rabi', "Rijai al-a'mal wa-tashri'at al-khaskhasa," Qadaya Barlamaniyya 40 (July 2000): 6-11.
73. Robert Springborg, "Agrarian Bourgeoisie, Semiproletarians, and the Egyptian State: Lessons for Liberalization," International Journal of Middle East Studies 22 (November 1990): 447-472;
74. Reem Saad, "State, Landlord, Parliament, and Peasant: The Story of the 1992 Land Tenancy Law in Egypt" in Alan Bowman and Eugene Rogan, eds., Agricultural Egypt from Pharonic Times to Modern Times (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1999), 387-404.
75. Vickie Langohr, "Too Much Civil Society, Too Little Politics: Egypt and Liberalizing Arab Regimes" in Pripstein Posusney and Penner Angrist, eds., Authoritarianism in the Middle East, 193-218.
76. Eva Bellin, Stalled Democracy.
77. Guilain Denoeux, "Tunisie: Les Elections Presidentielles et Legislatives, 20 Mars 1994," Monde Arabe: Maghreb-Machrek 145 (July-September): 49-72.
78. Stephen King, "Economic Reform and Tunisia's Hegemonic Party: The End of the Administrative Elite," Arab Studies Quarterly 20 (Spring 1998): 59-86.
79. King, Liberalization Against Democracy.
80. Ibid.;
81. Mohamed Elhachmi Hamdi, The Politicisation of Islam: A Case Study of Tunisia (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998).
82. Chris Alexander, "State, Labor, and the New Global Economy in Tunisia" in Vandewalle, ed., North Africa, 177.
83. Elbaki Hermassi, Leadership and National Development in North Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), 128-132.
84. John Entelis, Algeria: The Revolution Institutionalized (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986), 165-173.
85. Ibid.
86. Remy Leveau, "Algeria: Adversaries in Search of Uncertain Compromises" (Chaillot Paper 4, Institute for Security Studies of the European Union, 1996).
87. Raymond Hinnebusch, Authoritarian Power and State Formation in Baathist Syria: Army, Party, and Peasant (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990);
88. Patrick Seale, Asad of Syria: The Struggle for the Middle East (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
89. Joseph Bahout, "The Syrian Business Community, Its Politics and Prospects" in Eberhard Kienle, ed., Contemporary Syria (London: British Academic Press, 1994), 72-80;
90. Glenn Robinson, "Elite Cohesion, Regime Succession and Political Instability in Syria, Middle East Policy 5 (January 1998): 159-179.
91. Shadid, "Syria Heralds Reforms."
92. Eyal Zisser, "Does Bashar al-Assad Rule Syria?" Middle East Quarterly 10 (Winter 2003): 3-15.
93. Shadid, "Syria Heralds Reforms."
94. Eva Bellin, "Coercive Institutions and Coercive Leaders" in Pripstein Posusney and Penner Angrist, eds., Authoritarianism in the Middle East, 21-42;
95. Jason Brownlee, "Political Crisis and Restabilization: Iraq, Libya, Syria, and Tunisia" in Pripstein-Posusney and Penter Angrist, eds., Authoritarianism in the Middle East, 43-62.
96. Marsha Pripstein Posusney, "Multiparty Elections in the Arab World: Opposition Responses" in Pripstein Posusney and Penner Angrist, eds., Authoritarianism in the Middle East, 91-118.
97. Langohr, "Too Much Civil Society," 193-220.
98. Daniel Brumberg, "The Trap of Liberalized Autocracy," Journal of Democracy 13 (October 2002): 56-68.
99. Ellen-Lust Okar, "Opposition and Economic Crises in Jordan and Morocco" in Pripstein Posusney and Penner Angrist, eds., Authoritarianism in the Middle East, 143-168.
100. Abdesalem Maghraoui, "Depoliticization in Morocco" in Larry Diamond, Marc F. Plattner, and Daniel Brumberg, eds., Islam and Democracy in the Middle East (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 67.
101. Eva Bellin, "The Political and Economic Conundrum: The Affinity of Economic and Political Reform in the Middle East and North Africa" (Carnegie Paper No. 53, November 2004).
102. Henry and Springborg, Globalization and the Politics of Development, 162.