Twenty years later: Explaining the persistence of the glass ceiling for women leaders

Women in Management Review

Volumn 22, Issue 6, 2007, Pages 482-496

  Weyer, Birgit ^a  

^a Weyer und Hansen GbR ^*  (Germany)

Author keywords

Gender; Glass ceilings; Leadership; Sexual discrimination; Social roles; Women

Indexed keywords

EID: 34548186907     PISSN: 09649425     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1108/09649420710778718     Document Type: Article

References (44)

1. Alimo-Metcalfe, B. (1998), "360 degree feedback and leadership development", International Journal of Selection and Assessment, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 35-44.
2. Aviolo, B.J., Bass, B.M. and Jung, D.I. (1999), "Re-examining the components of transformational and transactional leadership using the mulitfactor leadership questionnaire", Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, Vol. 72 No. 4, pp. 441-62.
3. Bartol, K.M., Martin, D.C. and Kromkowski, J.A. (2003), "Leadership and the glass ceiling: Gender and ethnic group influences on leader behaviors at middle and executive managerial levels", Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 8-20.
4. Bass, B.M. and Avolio, B.J. (1993), "Transformational leadership and organizational culture", Public Administration Quarterly, Vol. 17 No. 1, pp. 112-9.
5. Bass, B.M., Aviolo, B.J. and Atwater, L. (1996), "The transformational and transactional leadership of men and women", Applied Psychology: An International Review, Vol. 45 No. 1, pp. 5-34.
6. Becker, J., Ayman, R. and Korabik, K. (2002), "Discrepancies in self/subordinates' perceptions of leadership behavior: Leader's gender, organizational context, leader's self-monitoring", Group & Organization Management, Vol. 27 No. 2, pp. 226-45.
7. Berger, J., Rosenholtz, S.J. and Zelditch, M. Jr (1980), "Status organizing processes", Sociology, Vol. 6, pp. 479-508.
8. Black, A.E. and Rothman, S. (1998), "Have you really come a long way? Women's access to power in the United States", Gender Issues, Vol. 16 Nos 1/2, pp. 107-34.
9. Brenner, O.C., Tomkiewicz, J. and Schein, V.E. (1989), "The relationship between sex-role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics revisited", Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 32 No. 3, pp. 662-9.
10. Burke, S. and Collins, M. (2001), "Gender differences in leadership styles and management skills", Women in Management Review, Vol. 16 Nos 5/6, pp. 244-57.
11. Carless, S.A. (1998), "Gender differences in transformational leadership: An examination of superior, leader, and subordinate perspectives", Sex-roles: A Journal of Research, Vol. 39 Nos 11/12, pp. 887-98.
12. Carli, L.L. and Eagly, A.H. (2001), "Sex, hierarchy, and leadership: An introduction", Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 57 No. 4, pp. 629-36.
13. Catalyst (2003a), "Fact sheet: Women CEOs", October, available at: http://catalystwomen.org/press_room/factsheets/factwicl.htm (accessed January 4, 2004).
14. Catalyst (2003b), "Despite women's gains in business, their representation on America's corporate boards barely improves", press release, December 4, available at: http://catalystwomen.org/ press_room/pressreleases.htm (accessed January 4, 2004).
15. Chung, J. (2001), "The effects of rater sex and ratee sex on managerial performance evaluation", Australian Journal of Management, Vol. 26 No. 3, pp. 147-63.
16. Cross, S.E. and Madson, L. (1997), "Models of the self: self-construals and gender", Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 122 No. 1, pp. 5-37.
17. Deaux, K. and Major, B. (1987), "Putting gender into context: An interactive model of gender-related behavior", Psychological Review, Vol. 94 No. 3, pp. 369-89.
18. Eagly, A.H. (1987), Sex Differences in Social Behavior: A Social-role Interpretation, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.
19. Eagly, A.H. and Johannesen-Schmidt, M.C. (2001), "The leadership styles of women and men", Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 57 No. 4, pp. 781-97.
20. Eagly, A.H. and Johnson, B.T. (1990), "Gender and leadership style: a meta-analysis", Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 108 No. 2, pp. 233-56.
21. Eagly, A.H. and Karau, S.J. (1991), "Gender and the emergence of leaders: A meta-analysis", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 69 No. 5, pp. 685-710.
22. Eagly, A.H. and Karau, S.J. (2002), "Congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders", Psychological Review, Vol. 109 No. 3, pp. 573-98.
23. Eagly, A.H., Johannesen-Schmidt, M.C. and van Engen, M.L. (2003), "Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men", Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 129 No. 4, pp. 569-91.
24. Eagly, A.H., Makhijani, M.G. and Klonsky, B.C. (1992), "Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A meta-analysis", Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 111 No. 1, pp. 2-22.
25. Forsyth, D.R., Heiney, M.M. and Wright, S.S. (1997), "Biases in appraisals of women leaders", Group Dynamics, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 98-103.
26. Foschi, M. (2000), "Double standards for competence: Theory and research", Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 26, pp. 21-42.
27. Heilman, M.E. (2001), "Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women's ascent up the organizational ladder", Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 57 No. 4, pp. 657-74.
28. Heilman, M.E., Block, C.J., Martell, R.F. and Simon, M.C. (1989), "Current characteristics of men, women, and managers", Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 74 No. 6, pp. 935-42.
29. Jolly, S. (2000), "'Queering' development: Exploring the links between same-sex sexualities, gender, and development", Gender and Development, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 78-88.
30. Karakowsky, L. and Siegel, J.P. (1999), "The effects of proportional representation and gender orientation of the task on emergent leadership behavior in mixed-gender work groups", Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 84 No. 4, pp. 620-31.
31. Korabik, K. (1997), "Applied gender issues", in Sadava, S.W. and McCreary, D.R. (Eds), Applied Social Psychology, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, pp. 145-78.
32. Lewis, A.E. and Fagenson-Eland, E.A. (1998), "The influence of gender and organization level on perceptions of leadership behaviors: A self and supervisor comparison", Sex-roles: A Journal of Research, Vol. 39 Nos 5/6, pp. 479-503.
33. Lueptow, L.B., Garovich-Szabo, L. and Lueptow, M.B. (2001), "Social change and the persistence of sex typing: 1974-1997", Social Forces, Vol. 80 No. 1, pp. 1-32.
34. Maher, K. (1997), "Gender-related stereotypes of transformational and transactional leadership", Sex-Roles, Vol. 37 Nos 3/4, pp. 209-25.
35. Moskowitz, D.S., Suh, E.J. and Desaulniers, J. (1994), "Situational influences on gender differences in agency and communion", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 66 No. 4, pp. 753-61.
36. Oakley, J.G. (2000), "Gender-;based barriers to senior management positions: Understanding the scarcity of female CEOs", Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 27 No. 2, pp. 321-35.
37. Putnam, L.L. (1983), "Lady you're trapped: Breaking out of conflict cycles", in Pilotta, J. (Ed.), Women in Organizations: Barriers and Breakthroughs, Waveland, Prospect Heights, NY, pp. 39-53.
38. Ridgeway, C.L. (2001), "Sex, status, and leadership", Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 57 No. 4, pp. 637-55.
39. Rosener, J.B. (1990), "Ways women lead", Harvard Business Review, Vol. 68 No. 6, pp. 119-26.
40. Stelter, N.Z. (2002), "Gender differences in leadership: Current social issues and future organizational implications", Journal of Leadership Studies, Vol. 8 No. 4, pp. 88-100.
41. Townsend, B. (1997), "Breaking through: The glass ceiling revisited", Equal Opportunities International, Vol. 16 No. 5, pp. 4-14.
42. US Bureau of Labor Statistics (2004), "Annual average tables from the January 2003 issue of Employment and Earnings (Table 11. Employed persons by detailed occupation, sex, race, and Hispanic origin)", available at: www.bls.gov/cps (accessed January 4).
43. Wagner, D.G. and Berger, J. (1997), "Gender and interpersonal task behaviors: Status expectation accounts", Sociological Perspectives, Vol. 40 No. 3, pp. 1-32.
44. Wood, W. and Eagly, A.H. (2002), "A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex differences", Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 128 No. 5, pp. 699-727.