Venous thrombosis in the elderly

Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis

Volumn 5, Issue SUPPL. 1, 2007, Pages 310-317

  Rosendaal, F R ^a   Van Hylckama Vlieg, A ^a   Doggen, C J M ^a  

^a LEIDEN UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Cancer; Elderly; Epidemiology; Risk factors; Thrombosis; Venous

Indexed keywords

ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; ANTITHROMBIN; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 11; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 13; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 5 LEIDEN; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 8; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 9; CONJUGATED ESTROGEN; ESTROGEN; FIBRINOGEN; ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE AGENT; PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR INHIBITOR 3; PROTEIN C; PROTEIN S; PROTHROMBIN; THROMBIN ACTIVATABLE FIBRINOLYSIS INHIBITOR; TISSUE FACTOR PATHWAY INHIBITOR;

ACTIVATED PROTEIN C RESISTANCE; AGE DISTRIBUTION; ANTITHROMBIN DEFICIENCY; CANCER; CANCER PATIENT; DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS; DIAGNOSTIC ERROR; ELDERLY CARE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GENETIC RISK; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; HYPERCOAGULABILITY; HYPERHOMOCYSTEINEMIA; IMMOBILIZATION; INCIDENCE; LUNG EMBOLISM; MENOPAUSAL SYNDROME; MORTALITY; PRIMARY PREVENTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN C DEFICIENCY; PROTEIN S DEFICIENCY; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SURGICAL RISK; THROMBOGENESIS; THROMBOPHILIA; VEIN THROMBOSIS; VULNERABLE POPULATION;

AGED; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; NEOPLASMS; RISK FACTORS; VENOUS THROMBOSIS;

EID: 34250726123     PISSN: 15387933     EISSN: 15387836     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2007.02489.x     Document Type: Review

References (117)

1. van Bemmel T, Gussekloo J, Westendorp RG, Blauw GJ. In a population-based prospective study, no association between high blood pressure and mortality after age 85 years. J Hypertens 2006; 24: 287-92.
2. Casiglia E, Spolaore P, Ginocchio G, Colangeli G, Di MG, Marchioro M, Mazza A, Ambrosio GB. Predictors of mortality in very old subjects aged 80 years or over. Eur J Epidemiol 1993; 9: 577-86.
3. Mattila K, Haavisto M, Rajala S, Heikinheimo R. Blood pressure and five year survival in the very old. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1988; 296: 887-9.
4. Weverling-Rijnsburger AW, Blauw GJ, Lagaay AM, Knook DL, Meinders AE, Westendorp RG. Total cholesterol and risk of mortality in the oldest old. Lancet 1997; 350: 1119-23.
5. White C. An Inquiry Into the Nature and Cause of That Swelling in One or Both of the Lower Extremities Which Sometimes Happen to In-Lying Women Together With the Propriety of Drawing the Breasts of Those Who Do and Also Who Do Not Give Suck. London: Warrington, 1784.
6. Wright IS. The George E. Brown Memorial Lecture: The pathogenesis and treatment of thrombosis. Circulation 1952; 5: 161-88.
7. Deslandes M. Traite des Accouchements de M. Puzos. Paris: Desaint & Saillant, 1759.
8. Trousseau A. Phlegmasia Alba Dolens; Clinique Médicale de l'Hôtel-Dieu de Paris, Vol 3. Paris: J. B. Ballière et fils, 1865.
9. Virchow R. Phlogose und Thrombose im Gefäßsystem; Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur Wissenschaftlichen Medizin. Frankfurt: Staatsdruckerei, 1856.
10. Nordström M, Lindblad B, Bergqvist D, Kjellström T. A prospective study of the incidence of deep-vein thrombosis within a defined urban population. J Intern Med 1992; 232: 155-60.
11. Anderson FA, Wheeler HB, Goldberg RJ, Hosmer DW, Patwardhan NA, Jovanovic B, Forrier A, Dalen JE. A population based perspective of the hospital incidence and case-fatality rates of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. The Worcester DVT study. Arch Intern Med 1991; 151: 933-8.
12. Oger E. Incidence of venous thromboembolism: A community-based study in western France. Thromb Haemost 2000; 83: 657-60.
13. Cushman M, Tsai AW, White RH, Heckbert SR, Rosamond WD, Enright P, Folsom AR. Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in two cohorts: the longitudinal investigation of thromboembolism etiology. Am J Med 2004; 117: 19-25.
14. Naess IA, Christiansen SC, Romundstad P, Cannegieter SC, Rosendaal FR, Hammerstrøm J. Incidence and mortality of venous thrombosis: A population-based study. J Thromb Haemost 2007; 5: 692-9.
15. Rosendaal FR. Thrombosis in the young: Epidemiology and risk factors, a focus on venous thrombosis. Thromb Haemost 1997; 78:1-6.
16. Brandjes DP, Büller HR, Heijboer H, Huisman MV, de Rijk M, Jagt H, Ten Cate JW. Randomised trial of effect of compression stockings in patients with symptomatic proximal-vein thrombosis. Lancet 1997; 349: 759-62.
17. Tsai AW, Cushman M, Rosamond WD, Heckbert SR, Polak JF, Folsom AR. Cardiovascular risk factors and venous thromboembolism incidence: The longitudinal investigation of thromboembolism etiology. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162: 1182-9.
18. Vandenbroucke JP, Koster T, Briët E, Reitsma PH, Bertina RM, Rosendaal FR. Increased risk of venous thrombosis in oral-contraceptive users who are carriers of factor V Leiden mutation. Lancet 1994; 344: 1453-7.
19. Gerstman BB, Piper JM, Tomita DK, Ferguson WJ, Stadel BV, Lundin FE. Oral contraceptive estrogen dose and the risk of deep venous thromboembolic disease. Am J Epidemiol 1991; 133: 32-7.
20. Bloemenkamp KWM, Rosendaal FR, Helmerhorst FM, Büller HR, Vandenbroucke JP. Enhancement by factor V Leiden mutation of risk of deep-vein thrombosis associated with oral contraceptives containing a third- generation progestagen. Lancet 1995; 346: 1593-6.
21. Jick H, Derby LE, Wald Myers M, Vasilakis C, Newton KM. Risk of hospital admission for idiopathic venous thromboembolism among users of postmenopasusal oestrogens. Lancet 1996; 348: 981-3.
22. Grodstein F, Stampfer MJ, Goldhaber SZ, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Speizer FE, Willett WC, Hennekens CH. Prospective study of exogenous hormones and risk of pulmonary embolism in women. Lancet 1996; 348: 983-7.
23. Daly E, Vessey MP, Painter R, Hawkins MM. Case-control study of venous thromboembolism risk in users of hormone replacement therapy. Lancet 1996; 348: 1027.
24. Cushman M, Kuller LH, Prentice R, Rodabough RJ, Psaty BM, Stafford RS, Sidney S, Rosendaal FR. Estrogen plus progestin and risk of venous thrombosis. JAMA 2004; 292: 1573-80.
25. Van der Meer FJM, Rosendaal FR, Vandenbroucke JP, Briët E. Bleeding complications in oral anticoagulant therapy: An analysis of risk factors. Arch Intern Med 1993; 153: 1557-62.
26. Rosendaal FR. Risk factors for venous thrombosis: Prevalence, risk and interaction. Semin Hematol 1997; 34: 171-87.
27. Heit JA, O'Fallon WM, Petterson TM, Lohse CM, Silverstein MD, Mohr DN, Melton LJ. Relative impact of risk factors for deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: A population-based study. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162: 1245-8.
28. Egeberg O. Inherited antithrombin deficiency causing thrombophilia. Thromb Diath Haemorrh 1965; 13: 516-30.
29. Griffin JH, Evatt B, Zimmerman TS, Kleiss AJ, Wideman C. Deficiency of protein C in congenital thrombotic disease. J Clin Invest 1981; 68: 1370-3.
30. Schwarz HP, Fischer M, Hopmeier P, Batard MA, Griffin JH. Plasma protein S deficiency in familial thrombotic disease. Blood 1984; 64: 1297-300.
31. Tait RC, Walker ID, Reitsma PH, Islam SI, McCall F, Poort SR, Conkie JA, Bertina RM. Prevalence of protein C deficiency in the healthy population. Thromb Haemost 1995; 73: 87-93.
32. Tait RC, Walker ID, Perry DJ, Islam SI, Daly ME, McCall F, Conkie JA, Carrell RW. Prevalence of antithrombin deficiency in the healthy population. Br J Haematol 1994; 87: 106-12.
33. McColl M, Tait RC, Walker ID, Perry DJ, McCall F, Conkie JA. Low thrombosis rate seen in blood donors and their relatives with inherited deficiencies of antithrombin and protein C: Correlation with type of defect, family history, and absence of the factor V Leiden mutation. Blood Coag Fibrinol 1996; 7: 689-94.
34. Heijboer H, Brandjes DPM, Büller HR, Sturk A, Ten Cate JW. Deficiencies of coagulation-inhibiting and fibrinolytic proteins in outpatients with deep-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 1512-6.
35. Koster T, Rosendaal FR, Briët E, Van der Meer FJM, Colly LP, Trienekens PH, Poort SR, Vandenbroucke JP. Protein C deficiency in a controlled series of unselected outpatients: An infrequent but clear risk factor for venous thrombosis (Leiden Thrombophilia Study). Blood 1995; 85: 2756-61.
36. Allaart CF, Poort SR, Rosendaal FR, Reitsma PH, Bertina RM, Briët E. Increased risk of venous thrombosis in carriers of hereditary protein C deficiency defect. Lancet 1993; 341: 134-8.
37. Demers C, Ginsberg JS, Hirsh J, Henderson P, Blajchman MA. Thrombosis in antithrombin III-deficient persons: Report of a large kindred and literature review. Ann Intern Med 1992; 116: 754-61.
38. Van Boven HH, Vandenbroucke JP, Briët E, Rosendaal FR. Gene-gene and gene-environment interactions determine risk of thrombosis in families with inherited antithrombin deficiency. Blood 1999; 94: 2590-4.
39. Lensen RPM, Rosendaal FR, Koster T, Allaart CF, De Ronde H, Vandenbroucke JP, Reitsma PH, Bertina RM. Apparent different thrombotic tendency in patients with factor V Leiden and protein C deficiency due to selection of patients. Blood 1996; 88: 4205-8.
40. Vossen CY, Conard J, Fontcuberta J, Makris M, van der Meer FJ, Pabinger I, Palareti G, Preston FE, Scharrer I, Souto JC, Svensson P, Walker ID, Rosendaal FR. Risk of a first venous thrombotic event in carriers of a familial thrombophilic defect. The European Prospective Cohort on Thrombophilia (EPCOT). J Thromb Haemost 2005; 3: 459-64.
41. Bertina RM, Koeleman RPC, Koster T, Rosendaal FR, Dirven RJ, De Ronde H, Van der Velden PA, Reitsma PH. Mutation in blood coagulation factor V associated with resistance to activated protein C. Nature 1994; 369: 64-7.
42. Poort SR, Rosendaal FR, Reitsma PH, Bertina RM. A common genetic variation in the 3′-untranslated region of the prothrombin gene is associated with elevated plasma prothrombin levels and an increase in venous thrombosis. Blood 1996; 88: 3698-703.
43. Rees DC, Cox M, Clegg JB. World distribution of factor V Leiden. Lancet 1995; 346: 1133-4.
44. Rosendaal FR, Doggen CJM, Zivelin A, Arruda VR, Aiach M, Siscovick DS, Hillarp A, Watzke HH, Bernardi F, Cumming AM, Preston FE, Reitsma PH. Geographic distribution of the 20210 G to A prothrombin variant. Thromb Haemost 1998; 79: 706-8.
45. Svensson PJ, Dahlbäck B. Resistance to activated protein C as a basis for venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 517-22.
46. Rosendaal FR, Koster T, Vandenbroucke JP, Reitsma PH. High risk of thrombosis in patients homozygous for factor V Leiden (activated protein C resistance). Blood 1995; 85: 1504-8.
47. Koster T, Rosendaal FR, De Ronde H, Briët E, Vandenbroucke JP, Bertina RM. Venous thrombosis due to a poor anticoagulant response to activated protein C: Leiden Thrombophilia Study. Lancet 1993; 342: 1503-6.
48. Dahlbäck B, Carlsson M, Svensson PJ. Familial thrombophilia due to a previously unrecognised mechanism characterized by poor anticoagulant response to activated protein C: Prediction of a cofactor to activated protein C. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993; 90: 1004-8.
49. Folsom AR, for the LITE investigators. Update on factor V Leiden association with venous thromboembolism in the LITE study. Blood 2007; 109: 1336-7.
50. Coppens M, van de Poel MH, Bank I, Hamulyak K, van der MJ, Veeger NJ, Prins MH, Buller HR, Middeldorp S. A prospective cohort study on the absolute incidence of venous thromboembolism and arterial cardiovascular disease in asymptomatic carriers of the prothrombin 20210A mutation. Blood 2006; 108: 2604-7.
51. Koster T, Blann AD, Briët E, Vandenbroucke JP, Rosendaal FR. Role of clotting factor VIII in effect of von Willebrand factor on occurrence of deep-vein thrombosis. Lancet 1995; 345: 152-5.
52. van Hylckama Vlieg A, Van der Linden IK, Bertina RM, Rosendaal FR. High levels of factor IX increase the risk of venous thrombosis. Blood 2000; 95: 3678-82.
53. Meijers JC, Tekelenburg WL, Bouma BN, Bertina RM, Rosendaal FR. High levels of coagulation factor XI as a risk factor for venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 696-701.
54. van Tilburg NH, Rosendaal FR, Bertina RM. Thrombin activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor and the risk for deep vein thrombosis. Blood 2000; 95: 2855-9.
55. van Hylckama Vlieg A, Rosendaal FR. High levels of fibrinogen are associated with the risk of deep venous thrombosis mainly in the elderly. J Thromb Haemost 2003; 1: 2677-8.
56. Kamphuisen PW, Houwing-Duistermaat JJ, van Houwelingen JC, Eikenboom JCJ, Bertina RM, Rosendaal FR. Familial clustering of factor VIII and von Willebrand factor levels. Thromb Haemost 1998; 79: 323-7.
57. Kamphuisen PW, Lensen R, Houwing-Duistermaat JJ, Eikenboom JC, Harvey M, Bertina RM, Rosendaal FR. Heritability of elevated factor VIII antigen levels in factor V Leiden families with thrombophilia. Br J Haematol 2000; 109: 519-22.
58. Simioni P, Prandoni P, Burlina A, Tormene D, Sardella C, Ferrari V, Benedetti L, Girolami A. Hyperhomocysteinemia and deep-vein thrombosis: a case-control study. Thromb Haemost 1996; 76: 883-6.
59. Fermo I, D'Angelo SV, Paroni R, Mazzola G, Calori G, D'Angelo A. Prevalence of moderate hyperhomocysteinemia in patients with early-onset venous and arterial occlusive disease. Ann Intern Med 1995; 123: 747-53.
60. Den Heijer M, Koster T, Blom HJ, Bos GMJ, Briët E, Reitsma PH, Vandenbroucke JP, Rosendaal FR. Hyperhomocysteinemia as a risk factor for deep-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med 1996; 334: 759-62.
61. Mari D, Mannucci PM, Coppola R, Bottasso B, Bauer KA, Rosenberg RD. Hypercoagulability in centenarians: The paradox of successful aging. Blood 1995; 85: 3144-9.
62. Folsom AR, Cushman M, Tsai MY, Aleksic N, Heckbert SR, Boland LL, Tsai AW, Yanez ND, Rosamond WD. A prospective study of venous thromboembolism in relation to factor V Leiden and related factors. Blood 2002; 99: 2720-5.
63. Tsai AW, Cushman M, Rosamond WD, Heckbert SR, Tracy RP, Aleksic N, Folsom AR. Coagulation factors, inflammation markers, and venous thromboembolism: The longitudinal investigation of thromboembolism etiology (LITE). Am J Med 2002; 113: 636-42.
64. Cushman M, Folsom AR, Wang L, Aleksic N, Rosamond WD, Tracy RP, Heckbert SR. Fibrin fragment D-dimer and the risk of future venous thrombosis. Blood 2003; 101: 1243-8.
65. Cohen SH, Ehrlich GE, Kaufman MS, Cope C. Thrombophlebitis following knee surgery. J Bone Joint Surg 1973; 55: 106-11.
66. Hull RD, Raskob GE. Prophylaxis of venous thromboembolic disease following hip and knee surgery. J Bone Joint Surg 1986; 68: 146-50.
67. Nicolaides AN, Field ES, Kakkar VV, Yates-Bell AJ, Taylor S, Clarke MB. Prostatectomy and deep-vein thrombosis. Br J Surg 1972; 59: 487-8.
68. Mayo M, Halil T, Browse NL. The incidence of deep vein thrombosis after prostatectomy. Br J Urol 1971; 43: 738-42.
69. Walsh JJ, Bonnar J, Wright FW. A study of pulmonary embolism and deep vein thrombosis after major gynaecological surgery using labelled fibrinogen, phlebography and lung scanning. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw 1974; 81: 311-6.
70. Geerts WH, Code KI, Jay RM, Chen E, Szalai JP. A prospective study of venous thromboembolism after major trauma. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 1601-6.
71. Myllynen P, Kammonen M, Rokkanen P, Bostman O, Lalla M, Laasonen E. Deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in patients with acute spinal cord injury: A comparison with nonparalyzed patients immobilized due to spinal fractures. J Trauma 1985; 25: 541-3.
72. Hjelmstedt A, Bergvall U. Incidence of thrombosis in patients with tibial fractures. Acta Chir Scand 1968; 134: 209-18.
73. Eikelboom JW, Quinlan DJ, Douketis JD. Extended-duration prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism after total hip or knee replacement: A meta-analysis of the randomised trials. Lancet 2001; 358: 9-15.
74. Koster T. Deep-vein thrombosis. A population-based case-control study: Leiden Thrombophilia Study; Thesis. Leiden: Rijksuniversiteit Leiden, 1995.
75. Bannink L, Doggen CJM, Nelissen RGHH, Rosendaal FR. Increased risk of venous thrombosis after orthopedic and general surgery: Results of the MEGA study (abstract). J Thromb Haemost 2005; 3(Suppl. 1): P1653.
76. Gibbs NM. Venous thrombosis of the lower limbs with particular reference to bed-rest. Br J Surg 1957; 45: 209-35.
77. Warlow C, Ogston D, Douglas AS. Deep venous thrombosis of the legs after stroke. Br Med J 1976; 1: 1178-81.
78. Homans J. Thrombosis of the leg veins due to prolonged sitting. N Engl J Med 1954; 250: 148-9.
79. Simpson K. Shelter deaths from pulmonary embolism. Lancet 1940; ii: 744.
80. Cannegieter SC, Doggen CJM, van Houwelingen HC, Rosendaal FR. Travel-related venous thrombosis: Results from a large population-based case control study (MEGA study). PLoS Med 2006; 3: E307.
81. Kuipers S, Schreijer AJM, Cannegieter SC, Middeldorp S, Büller HR, Rosendaal FR. The absolute risk of venous thrombosis after air travel (WRIGHT Study). J Thromb Haemost 2005; 3 (Suppl. 1): P1657.
82. Lopez-Jimenez L, Montero M, Gonzalez-Fajardo JA, Arcelus JI, Suarez C, Lobo JL, Monreal M. Venous thromboembolism in very elderly patients: findings from a prospective registry (RIETE). Haematologica 2006; 91: 1046-51.
83. Furie B, Furie BC. Cancer-associated thrombosis. Blood Cells Mol Dis 2006; 36: 177-81.
84. Tesselaar MET, Romijn PHTM, Van der Linden IK, Prins FA, Bertina RM, Osanto S. Microparticle-associated tissue factor activity: A link between cancer and thrombosis? J Thromb Haemost 2007; 5: 520-7.
85. Bick RL. Coagulation abnormalities in malignancy: A review. Sem Thromb Hemost 1992; 18: 353-69.
86. Zurborn KH, Duscha H, Gram J, Bruhn HD. Investigations of coagulation system and fibrinolysis in patients with disseminated adenocarcinomas and non-Hodgkin lymphomas. Oncology 1990; 47: 376-80.
87. Meier CR, Jick H. Tamoxifen and risk of idiopathic venous thromboembolism. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1998; 45: 608-12.
88. Weijl NI, Rutten MF, Zwinderman AH, Keizer HJ, Nooy MA, Rosendaal FR, Cleton FJ, Osanto S. Thromboembolic events during chemotherapy for germ cell cancer: A cohort study and review of the literature. J Clin Oncol 2000; 18: 2169-78.
89. Blom JW, Vanderschoot JP, Oostindier MJ, Osanto S, van der Meer FJ, Rosendaal FR. Incidence of venous thrombosis in a large cohort of 66,329 cancer patients: Results of a record linkage study. J Thromb Haemost 2006; 4: 529-35.
90. Blom JW, Doggen CJM, Osanto S, Rosendaal FR. Old and new risk factors for upper extremity deep venous thrombosis. J Thromb Haemost 2005; 3: 2471-8.
91. van Rooden CJ, Rosendaal FR, Barge RM, van Oostayen JA, van der Meer FJM, Meinders AE, Huisman MV. Central venous catheter related thrombosis in haematology patients and prediction of risk by screening with Doppler-ultrasound. Br J Haematol 2003; 123: 507-12.
92. van Rooden CJ, Rosendaal FR, Meinders AE, van Oostayen JA, van der Meer FJM, Huisman MV. The contribution of factor V Leiden and prothrombin G20210A mutation to the risk of central venous catheter-related thrombosis. Haematologica 2004; 89: 201-6.
93. Blom JW, Osanto S, Rosendaal FR. The risk of a venous thrombotic event in lung cancer patients: Higher risk for adenocarcinoma than squamous cell carcinoma. J Thromb Haemost 2004; 2: 1760-5.
94. Blom JW, Osanto S, Rosendaal FR. High risk of venous thrombosis in patients with pancreatic cancer: A cohort study of 202 patients. Eur J Cancer 2006; 42: 410-4.
95. Blom JW, Doggen CJM, Osanto S, Rosendaal FR. Malignancies, prothrombotic mutations, and the risk of venous thrombosis. JAMA 2005; 293: 715-22.
96. Heit JA, Silverstein MD, Mohr DN, Petterson TM, O'Fallon WM, Melton LJ. Risk factors for deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: A population-based case-control study. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 809-15.
97. Baron JA, Gridley G, Weiderpass E, Nyren O, Linet M. Venous thromboembolism and cancer. Lancet 1998; 351: 1077-80.
98. Nordström M, Lindblad B, Anderson H, Bergqvist D, Kjellström T. Deep venous thrombosis and occult malignancy: An epidemiological study. BMJ 1994; 308: 891-4.
99. Watts NB. Therapies to improve bone mineral density and reduce the risk of fracture: Clinical trial results. J Reprod Med 2002; 47: 82-92.
100. Villareal DT, Binder EF, Williams DB, Schechtman KB, Yarasheski KE, Kohrt WM. Bone mineral density response to estrogen replacement in frail elderly women: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2001; 286: 815-20.
101. Doren M, Samsioe G. Prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis with oestrogen replacement therapy and associated compounds: Update on clinical trials since 1995. Hum Reprod Update 2000; 6: 419-26.
102. MacLennan A, Lester S, Moore V. Oral oestrogen replacement therapy versus placebo for hot flushes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001; CD002978.
103. Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, Lacroix AZ, Kooperberg C, Stefanick ML, Jackson RD, Beresford SA, Howard BV, Johnson KC, Kotchen JM, Ockene J. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: Principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002; 288: 321-33.
104. Hulley S, Furberg C, Barrett-Connor E, Cauley J, Grady D, Haskell W, Knopp R, Lowery M, Satterfield S, Schrott H, Vittinghoff E, Hunninghake D. Noncardiovascular disease outcomes during 6.8 years of hormone therapy: Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study follow-up (HERS II). JAMA 2002; 288: 58-66.
105. Hulley S, Grady D, Bush T, Furberg C, Herrington D, Riggs B, Vittinghoff E, for the Heart Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Research Group. Randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. JAMA 1998; 280: 605-13.
106. Varas Lorenzo C, Garcia Rodriguez LA, Cattaruzzi C, Troncon MG, Agostinis L, Perez Gutthann S. Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of hospitalization for venous thromboembolism: A population-based study in southern Europe. Am J Epidemiol 1998; 147: 387-90.
107. Perez Gutthann S, Garcia Rodriguez LA, Castellsague J, Duque Oliart A. Hormone replacement therapy and risk of venous thromboembolism: population based case-control study. BMJ 1997; 314: 796-800.
108. Grady D, Furberg C. Venous thromboembolic events associated with hormone replacement therapy. JAMA 1997; 278: 477.
109. Grady D, Wenger NK, Herrington D, Khan S, Furberg C, Hunninghoke D, Vittinghoff E, Hulley S. Postmenopausal hormone therapy increases risk for venous thromboembolic disease. Ann Intern Med 2000; 132: 689-96.
110. Hoibraaten E, Abdelnoor M, Sandset PM. Hormone replacement therapy with estradiol and risk of venous thromboembolism - a population-based case-control study. Thromb Haemost 1999; 82: 1218-21.
111. Scarabin PY, Oger E, Plu-Bureau G. Differential association of oral and transdermal oestrogen-replacement therapy with venous thromboembolism risk. Lancet 2003; 362: 428-32.
112. Smith NL, Heckbert SR, Lemaitre RN, Reiner AP, Lumley T, Weiss NS, Larson EB, Rosendaal FR, Psaty BM. Esterified estrogens and conjugated equine estrogens and the risk of venous thrombosis. JAMA 2004; 292: 1581-7.
113. Lowe G, Woodward M, Vessey M, Rumley A, Gough P, Daly E. Thrombotic variables and risk of idiopathic venous thromboembolism in women aged 45-64 years: Relationships to hormone replacement therapy. Thromb Haemost 2000; 83: 530-5.
114. Rosendaal FR, Vessey M, Rumley A, Daly E, Woodward M, Helmerhorst FM, Lowe GDO. Hormonal replacement therapy, prothrombotic mutations and the risk of venous thrombosis. Br J Haematol 2002; 116: 851-4.
115. Herrington DM, Vittinghoff E, Howard TD, Major DA, Owen J, Reboussin DM, Bowden D, Bittner V, Simon JA, Grady D, Hulley SB. Factor V Leiden, hormone replacement therapy, and risk of venous thromboembolic events in women with coronary disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22: 1012-7.
116. Smith NL, Heckbert SR, Lemaitre RN, Reiner AP, Lumley T, Rosendaal FR, Psaty BM. Conjugated equine estrogen, esterified estrogen, prothrombotic variants, and the risk of venous thrombosis in postmenopausal women. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2006; 26: 2807-12.
117. Smith NL, Heckbert SR, Doggen CJ, Lemaitre RN, Reiner AP, Lumley T, Meijers JC, Psaty BM, Rosendaal FR. The differential association of conjugated equine estrogen and esterified estrogen with activated protein C resistance in postmenopausal women. J Thromb Haemost 2006; 4: 1701-6.