Respiratory viruses, eosinophil activation, and early allergen sensitization - Early life predictors of persistent wheezing and asthma

Current Pediatric Reviews

Volumn 3, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 115-127

  Kotaniemi Syrjänen, Anne ^a   Korppi, Matti ^a  

^a KUOPIO UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Finland)

Author keywords

Asthma; Eosinophilia; Respiratory syncytial virus; Rhinovirus; Sensitization; Wheezing

Indexed keywords

ALLERGEN; ANTIASTHMATIC AGENT; IMMUNOGLOBULIN E ANTIBODY;

ALLERGIC ASTHMA; ANTIGEN SPECIFICITY; CELL ACTIVATION; CHILDHOOD MORTALITY; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE EXACERBATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; EOSINOPHIL; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMAN; INFECTION RISK; INFLUENZA VIRUS A; INFLUENZA VIRUS B; MORBIDITY; NONHUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHENOTYPE; PREDICTION; PRICK TEST; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROVOCATION TEST; RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL PNEUMOVIRUS; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; RESPIRATORY VIRUS; REVIEW; RHINOVIRUS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SKIN TEST; VIRUS CELL INTERACTION; VIRUS CULTURE; VIRUS DETECTION; VIRUS IDENTIFICATION; VIRUS STRAIN; WHEEZING;

EID: 34248658553     PISSN: 15733963     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/157339607780599047     Document Type: Review

References (182)

1. Morgan WJ, Martinez FD. Risk factors for developing wheezing and asthma in childhood. Pediatr Clin North Am 1992; 39: 1185-1203.
2. Martinez FD, Wright AL, Taussig LM, et al. Asthma and wheezing in the first six years of life. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 133-8.
3. Korppi M, Halonen P, Kleemola M, Launiala K. Viral findings in children under the age of two years with expiratory difficulties. Acta Paediatr Scand 1986; 75: 457-64.
4. Carlsen KH, Larsen S, Ørstavik I. Acute bronchiolitis in infancy. The relationship to later recurrent obstructive airways disease. Eur J Respir Dis 1987; 70: 86-92.
5. Papadopoulos NG, Moustaki M, Tsolia M, et al. Association of rhinovirus infection with increased disease severity in acute bronchiolitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 165: 1285-9.
6. Heymann PW, Carper HT, Murphy DD, et al. Viral infections in relation to age, atopy, and season of admission among children hospitalised for wheezing. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2004; 114: 239-47.
7. Jartti T, Lehtinen P, Vuorinen T, et al. Respiratory Picornaviruses and respiratory syncytial viruses as causative agents of acute expiratory wheezing in children. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10: 1095-101.
8. Korppi M, Leinonen M, Koskela M, Mäkelä H, Launiala K. Bacterial coinfection in children hospitalized with respiratory syncytial virus infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1989; 8: 687-92.
9. Lehtinen P, Jartti T, Virkki R, et al. Bacterial coinfections in children with viral wheezing. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2006; 25: 463-9.
10. Thorburn K, Harigopal S, Reddy V, Taylor N, van Saene HKF. High incidence of pulmonary bacterial co-infection in children with severe respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) bronchiolitis. Thorax 2006; 61: 611-5.
11. Nelson WL, Hopkins RS, Roe MH, Glode MP. Simultaenous infection with Bordetella pertussis and respiratory syncytial virus in hospitalized children. Pediatr Infect Dis 1986; 5: 540-4.
12. Crowcroft NS, Booy R, Harrison T, et al. Severe and unrecognized: pertussis in UK infants. Arch Dis Child 2003; 88: 802-6.
13. Esposito S, Blasi F, Arosio C, et al. Importance of acute Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae infections in children with wheezing. Eur Respir J 2000; 16: 1142-6.
14. Korppi M. Viruses and airborn allergens as precipitants of obstructive respiratory difficulties in children. Ann Clin Research 1988, 20: 417-22.
15. Duff AL, Pomeranz ES, Gelber LE, et al. Risk factors for acute wheezing in infants and children: viruses, passive smoke, and IgE antibodies to inhalant allergens. Pediatrics 1993; 92: 535-40.
16. Phelan PD, Landau LI, Olinsky A. Clinical patterns of acute respiratory infections. Acute viral bronchiolitis. In: Respiratory illness in children. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1990; 66-73.
17. Boyce TG, Mellen BG, Mitchel EF Jr, Wright PF, Griffin MR. Rates of hospitalization for respiratory syncytial virus infection among children in Medicaid. J Pediatr 2000; 137: 865-70.
18. Smyth RL, Openshaw PJM. Bronchiolitis. Lancet 2006; 368: 312-22.
19. McIntosh K, Halonen P, Ruuskanen O. Report of a workshop on respiratory viral infections: epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention. Clin Infect Dis 1993; 16: 151-64.
20. Ruuskanen O, Ogra PL. Respiratory syncytial virus. Curr Probl Pediatr 1993; 23: 50-79.
21. Kneyber MCJ, Steyerberg EW, de Groot R, Moll HA. Long-term effects of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) bronchiolitis in infants and young children: a quantitative review. Acta Paediatr 2000; 89: 654-60.
22. Glezen WP, Taber LH, Frank AL, Kasel JA. Risk of primary infection and reinfection with respiratory syncytial virus. Am J Dis Child 1986; 140: 543-6.
23. Waris M. Pattern of respiratory syncytial virus epidemics in Finland: two-year cycles with alternating prevalence of groups A and B. J Infect Dis 1991; 163: 464-9.
24. Webb MSC, Henry RL, Milner AD, Stokes GM, Swarbrick AS. Continuing respiratory problems three and a half years after acute viral bronchiolitis. Arch Dis Child 1985; 60: 1064-7.
25. Welliver RC, Sun M, Rinaldo D, Ogra PL. Predictive value of respiratory syncytial virus-specific IgE responses for recurrent wheezing following bronchiolitis. J Pediatr 1986; 109: 776-80.
26. Sly PD, Hibbert ME. Childhood asthma following hospitalization with acute viral bronchiolitis in infancy. Pediatr Pulmonol 1989; 7: 153-8.
27. Sigurs N, Bjarnason R, Sigurbergsson F, Kjellman B, Björkstén B. Asthma and immunoglobulin E antibodies after respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis: a prospective cohort study with matched controls. Pediatrics 1995; 95: 500-5.
28. Andréoletti L, Lesay M, Deschildre A, Lambert V, Dewilde A, Wattré P. Differential detection of rhinoviruses and enteroviruses RNA sequences associated with classical immunofluorescence assay detection of respiratory virus antigens in nasopharyngeal swabs from infants with bronchiolitis. J Med Virol 2000; 61: 341-6.
29. Freymuth F, Vabret A, Brouard J, el al. Detection of viral, Chlamydia pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections in exacerbations of asthma in children. J Clin Virol 1999; 13: 131-9.
30. Rakes GP, Arruda E, Ingram JM, et al. Rhinovirus and respiratory syncytial virus in wheezing children requiring emergency care. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 159: 785-90.
31. Kotaniemi-Syrjänen A, Vainionpää R, Reijonen TM, Waris M, Korhonen K, Korppi M. Rhinovirus-induced wheezing in infancy - the first sign of childhood asthma? J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003; 111: 66-71.
32. Camara AA, Silva JM, Ferriani VPL, el al. Risk factors for wheezing in a subtropical environment: Role of respiratory viruses and allergen sensitization. J Allergy Clin Immnunol 2004; 113: 551-7.
33. Lemanske RF, Jackson DJ, Gangnon RE, et al. Rhinovirus illnesses during infancy predict subsequent childhood wheezing. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005; 116: 571-7.
34. Meert K, Heidemann S, Abella B, Sarnaik A. Does prematurity alter the course of respiratory syncytial virus infection? Crit Care Med 1990; 18:1357-9.
35. MacDonald NE, Hall CB, Suffin SC, Alexson C, Harris PJ, Manning JA. Respiratory syncytial viral infection in infants with congenital heart disease. N Engl J Med 1982; 307: 397-400.
36. Groothuis JR, Gutierrez KM, Lauer BA. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in children with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatrics 1988; 82: 199-203.
37. Navas L, Wang E, de Carvalho V, Robinson J, the Pediatric Investigators Collaborative Network on Infections in Canada. Improved outcome of respiratory syncytial virus infection in a high-risk hospitalized population of Canadian children. J Pediatr 1992; 121: 348-54.
38. Wendt CH, Hertz MI. Respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus infections in the immunocompromised host. Semin Respir Infect 1995; 10: 224-31.
39. McCarthy AJ, Kingman HM, Kelly C, et al. The outcome of 26 patients with respiratory syncytial virus infection following allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 1999; 24: 1315-22.
40. Madhi SA, Venter M, Madhi A, Petersen K, Klugman KP. Differing manifestations of respiratory syncytial virus-associated severe lower respiratory tract infections in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected and uninfected children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2001; 20: 164-70.
41. Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Martinez FD, Morgan WJ, Taussig LM, Group Health Medical Associates. Breast feeding and lower respiratory tract illness in the first year of life. BMJ 1989; 299: 946-9.
42. Holberg CJ, Wright AL, Martinez FD, et al. Risk factors for respiratory syncytial virus-associated lower respiratory illnesses in the first year of life. Am J Epidemiol 1991; 133: 1135-51.
43. Law BJ, Carbonell-Estrany X, Simoes EAF. An update on respiratory syncytial virus epidemiology: a developed country perspective. Respir Med 2002; 96 (Suppl B): S1-S7.
44. Graham BS, Rutigliano JA, Johnson TR. Respiratory syncytial virus immunobiology and pathogenesis. Virology 2002; 297: 1-7.
45. Mäkelä MJ, Puhakka T, Ruuskanen O, et al. Viruses and bacteria in the etiology of the common cold. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36: 539-42.
46. Brooks GF, Butel JS, Morse SA, eds. Jawetz, Melnick, Adelberg's Medical Microbiology. 23rd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004.
47. Blomqvist S, Roivainen M, Puhakka T, Kleemola M, Hovi T. Virological and serological analysis of rhinovirus infections during the first two years of life in a cohort of children. J Med Virol 2002; 66: 263-8.
48. Johnston SL, Pattemore PK, Sanderson G, et al. Community study of role of viral infections in exacerbations of asthma in 9-11 year old children. BMJ 1995; 310: 1225-9.
49. Rawlinson WD, Waliuzzaman Z, Carter IW, Belessis YC, Gilbert KM, Morton JR. Asthma exacerbations in children associated with rhinovirus but not human metapneumovirus infection. J Infect Dis 2003; 187: 1314-8.
50. Kellner G, Popow-Kraupp T, Kundi M, Binder C, Kunz C. Clinical manifestations of respiratory tract infections due to respiratory syncytial virus and rhinoviruses in hospitalized children. Acta Paediatr Scand 1989; 78: 390-4.
51. Korppi M, Kotaniemi-Syrjänen A, Waris M, Vainionpää R, Reijonen TM. Rhinovirus-associated wheezing in infancy: comparison with respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004; 23: 995-9.
52. Henrickson KJ. Lower respiratory viral infections in immunocompetent children. Adv Pediatr Infect Dis 1994; 9: 59-96.
53. Henrickson KJ. Parainfluenza viruses. Clin Microbiol Rev 2003; 16: 242-64.
54. van den Hoogen BG, de Jong JC, Groen J, et al. A newly discovered human pneumovirus isolated from young children with respiratory tract disease. Nat Med 2001; 7: 719-24.
55. Stockton J, Stephenson I, Fleming D, Zambon M. Human metap-neumovirus as a cause of community-acquired respiratory illness. Emerg Infect Dis 2002; 8: 897-901.
56. Jartti T, van den Hoogen B, Garofalo RP, Osterhaus ADME, Ruuskanen O. Metapneumovirus and acute wheezing in children. Lancet 2002; 360: 1393-4.
57. Boivin G, De Serres G, Côté S, et al. Human metapneumovirus infections in hospitalized children. Emerg Infect Dis 2003; 9: 634-40.
58. Jennings LC, Anderson TP, Werno AM, Beynon KA, Murdoch DR. Viral etiology of acute respiratory tract infections in children presenting to hospital. Role of polymerase chain reaction and demonstration of multiple infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004; 23: 1003-7.
59. Choi EH, Lee HJ, Kim SJ, et al. The association of newly identified respiratory viruses with lower respiratory tract infections in Korean children, 2000-2005. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43: 585-92.
60. García-García ML, Calvo C, Martín F, Pérez-Breña P, Acosta B, Casas I. Human metapneumovirus infections in hospitalized infants in Spain. Arch Dis Child 2006; 91: 290-5.
61. Døllner H, Risnes K, Radtke A, Nordbø SA. Outbreak of human metapneumovirus infection in Norwegian children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004; 23: 436-40.
62. Isaacs D, Flowers D, Clarke JR, Valman HB, MacNaughton MR. Epidemiology of coronavirus respiratory infections. Arch Dis Child 1983; 58: 500-3.
63. Rota PA, Oberste MS, Monroe SS, et al. Characterization of a novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Science 2003; 300; 1394-9.
64. Fouchier RAM, Hartwig NG, Bestebroer TM, et al. A previously undescribed coronavirus associated with respiratory disease in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004; 101: 6212-6.
65. van der Hoek L, Pyre K, Jebbink MF, et al. Identification of a new human coronavirus. Nat Med 2004; 10: 368-73.
66. Woo PCY, Lau SKP, Chu C, et al. Characterization and complete genome sequence of a novel coronavirus, coronavirus HKU1, from patients with pneumonia. J Virol 2005; 79: 884-95.
67. Bastien N, Robinson JL, Tse A, Lee BE, Hart L, Li Y. Human coronavirus NL-63 infections in children: a 1-year study. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43: 4567-73.
68. Arden KE, McErlean P, Nissen MD, Sloots TP, Mackay IM. Frequent detection of human rhinoviruses, paramyxoviruses, coronaviruses, and bocavirus during acute respiratory tract infections. J Med Virol 2006; 78: 1232-40.
69. Esper F, Weibel C, Ferguson D, Landry ML, Kahn JS. Coronavirus HKU1 infection in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12: 775-9.
70. Sloots TP, McErlean P, Speicher DJ, Arden KE, Nissen MD, Mackay IM. Evidence of human coronavirus HKU1 and human bocavirus in Australian children. J Clin Virol 2006; 35: 99-102.
71. Mertsola J, Ziegler T, Ruuskanen O, Vanto T, Koivikko A, Halonen P. Recurrent wheezy bronchitis and viral respiratory infections. Arch Dis Child 1991; 66: 124-9.
72. Ruohola A, Heikkinen T, Waris M, Puhakka T, Ruuskanen O. Intranasal fluticasone propionate does not prevent acute otitis media during viral upper respiratory infection in children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000; 106: 467-71.
73. Thumerelle C, Deschildre A, Bouquillon C, et al. Role of viruses and atypical bacteria in exacerbations of asthma in hospitalized children: a prospective study in the Nord-Pas de Calais region (France). Pediatr Pulmonol 2003; 35: 75-82.
74. Allander T, Tammi MT, Eriksson M, Bjerkner A, Tiveljung-Lindell A, Andersson B. Cloning of a human parvovirus by molecular screening of respiratory tract samples. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005; 102: 12891-6.
75. Arnold JC, Singh KK, Spector SA, Sawyer MH. Human bocavirus: prevalence and clinical spectrum at a children's hospital. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43: 283-8.
76. Ma X, Endo R, Ishiguro N, et al. Detection of human bocavirus in Japanese children with lower respiratory tract infections. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44: 1132-4.
77. Weissbrich B, Neske F, Schubert J, et al. Frequent detection of bocavirus DNA in German children with respiratory tract infections. BMC Infect Dis 2006; 6: 109.
78. Gern JE, Calhoun WJ, Swenson C, Shen G, Busse WW. Rhinovirus infection preferentially increases lower airway responsiveness in allergic subjects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 155: 1872-6.
79. Martinez FD, Morgan WJ, Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Taussig LM. Diminished lung function as a predisposing factor for wheezing respiratory illness in infants. N Engl J Med 1988; 319: 1112-7.
80. Folkerts G, Busse WW, Nijkamp FP, Sorkness R, Gern JE. Virus-induced airway hyperresponsiveness and asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157: 1708-20.
81. Kowalski ML, Didier A, Kaliner MA. Neurogenic inflammation in the airways, I: neurogenic stimulation induces plasma protein extravasation into the rat airway lumen. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 140:101-9.
82. Piedimonte G, Hoffman JIE, Husseini WK, Snider RM, Desai MC, Nadel JA. NK1 receptors mediate neurogenic inflammatory increase in blood flow in rat airways. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74: 2462-8.
83. Fryer AD, Jacoby DB. Parainfluenza virus infection damages inhibitory M2 muscarinic receptors on pulmonary parasympathetic nerves in the guinea pig. Br J Pharmacol 1991; 102: 267-71.
84. Sorkness R, Clough JJ, Castleman WL, Lemanske RF Jr. Virus-induced airway obstruction and parasympathetic hyperresponsiveness in adult rats. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150: 28-34.
85. Buckner CK, Songsiridej V, Dick EC, Busse WW. In vivo and in vitro studies on the use of the guinea pig as a model for virusprovoked airway hyperreactivity. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 132; 305-10.
86. Colasurdo GN, Hemming VG, Prince GA, Loader JE, Graves JP, Larsen GL. Human respiratory syncytial virus affects nonadrenergic noncholinergic inhibition in cotton rat airways. Am J Physiol 1995; 12: L1006-11.
87. Folkerts G, van der Linde HJ, Nijkamp FP. Virus-induced airway hyperresponsiveness in guinea pigs is related to a deficiency in nitric oxide. J Clin Invest 1995; 95: 26-30.
88. Becker S, Koren HS, Henke DC. Interleukin-8 expression in normal nasal epithelium and its modulation by infection with respiratory syncytial virus and cytokines tumor necrosis factor, interleukin-1 and interleukin-6. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1993; 8: 20-7.
89. Noah TL, Becker S. Respiratory syncytial virus-induced cytokine production by a human bronchial epithelial cell line. Am J Physiol 1993; 265: L472-8.
90. Arnold R, Humbert B, Werchau H, Gallati H, Konig W. Interleukin-8, interleukin-6, and soluble tumour necrosis factor receptor type I release from a human pulmonary epithelial cell line (A549) exposed to respiratory syncytial virus. Immunology 1994; 82: 126-33.
91. Subauste MC, Jacoby DB, Richards SM, Proud D. Infection of a human respiratory epithelial cell line with rhinovirus. Induction of cytokine release and modulation of susceptibility to infection by cytokine exposure. J Clin Invest 1995; 96: 549-57.
92. Einarsson O, Geba GP, Zhu Z, Landry M, Elias JA. Interleukin-11: stimulation in vivo and in vitro by respiratory viruses and induction of airways hyperresponsiveness. J Clin Invest 1996; 97: 915-24.
93. Becker S, Reed W, Henderson FW, Noah TL. RSV infection of human airway epithelial cells causes production of the beta-chemokine RANTES. Am J Physiol 1997; 272: L512-20.
94. Johnston SL, Papi A, Bates PJ, Mastronarde JG, Monick MM, Hunninghake GW. Low grade rhinovirus infection induces a prolonged release of IL-8 in pulmonary epithelium. J Immunol 1998; 160: 6172-81.
95. Schroth MK, Grimm E, Frindt P, et al. Rhinovirus replication causes RANTES production in primary bronchial epithelial cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1999; 20: 1220-8.
96. Teran LM, Johnston SL, Schroder JM, Church MK, Holgate ST. Role of nasal interleukin-8 in neutrophil recruitment and activation in children with virus-induced asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 155: 1362-6.
97. Akira S, Hirano T, Taga T, Kishimoto T. Biology of multifunctional cytokines: IL 6 and related molecules (IL 1 and TNF). FASEB J 1990; 4: 2860-7.
98. Kameyoshi Y, Dorschner A, Mallet AI, Christophers E, Schroder JM. Cytokine RANTES released by thrombin-stimulated platelets is a potent attractant for human eosinophils. J Exp Med 1992; 176: 587-92.
99. Lopez AF, Williamson DJ, Gamble JR, et al. Recombinant human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor stimulates in vitro mature human neutrophil and eosinophil function, surface receptor expression, and survival. J Clin Invest 1986; 78: 1220-8.
100. Sedgwick JB, Quan SF, Calhoun WJ, Busse WW. Effect of interleukin-5 and granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor on in vitro eosinophil function: comparison with airway eosinophils. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1995; 96: 375-85.
101. Nagata M, Sedgwick JB, Busse WW. Synergistic activation of eosinophil superoxide anion generation by VCAM-1 and GM-CSF. Involvement of tyrosine kinase and protein kinase C. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 1997; 114 (Suppl 1): 78-80.
102. Faden H, Kaul TN, Ogra PL. Activation of oxidative and arachidonic acid metabolism in neutrophils by respiratory syncytial virus antibody complexes: possible role in disease. J Infect Dis 1983; 148: 110-6.
103. Ananaba GA, Anderson LJ. Antibody enhancement of respiratory syncytial virus stimulation of leukotriene production by a macrophage cell line. J Virol 1991; 65: 5052-60.
104. Volovitz B, Welliver RC, De Castro G, Krystofik DA, Ogra PL. The release of leukotriens in the respiratory tract during infection with respiratory syncytial virus: role in obstructive airway disease. Pediatr Res 1988; 24: 504-7.
105. 4 in bronchiolitis due to respiratory syncytial virus. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 1991; 2: 30-7.
106. van Schaik SM, Tristram DA, Nagpal IS, Hintz KM, Welliver RC 2nd, Welliver RC. Increased production of IFN-γ and cysteinyl leukotriens in virus-induced wheezing. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999; 103: 630-6.
107. Welliver RC, Kaul TN, Ogra PL. The appearance of cell-bound IgE in respiratory-tract epithelium after respiratory-syncytial-virus infection. N Engl J Med 1980; 303: 1198-202.
108. Welliver RC, Wong DT, Sun M, Middleton E Jr, Vaughan RS, Ogra PL. The development of respiratory syncytial specific IgE and the release of histamine in nasopharyngeal secretions after infection. N Engl J Med 1981; 305: 841-6.
109. Welliver RC, Wong DT, Middleton E Jr, Sun M, McCarthy N, Ogra PL. Role of parainfluenza virus-specific IgE in pathogenesis of croup and wheezing subsequent to infection. J Pediatr 1982; 101: 889-96.
110. Ramshaw IA, Ramsay AJ, Karupiah G, Rolph MS, Mahalingam S, Ruby JC. Cytokines and immunity to viral infections. Immunol Rev 1997; 159: 119-35.
111. Moran TM, Isobe H, Fernandez-Sesma A, Schulman JL. Interleukin-4 causes delayed virus clearance in influenza virus-infected mice. J Virol 1996; 70: 5230-5.
112. Fischer JE, Johnson JE, Kuli-Zade RK, et al. Overexpression of interleukin-4 delays virus clearance in mice infected with respiratory syncytial virus. J Virol 1997; 71: 8672-7.
113. Wilson CB, Penix L, Weaver WM, Melvin A, Lewis DB. Ontogeny of T lymphocyte function in the neonate. Am J Reprod Immunol 1992; 28: 132-5.
114. Jones CA, Warner JO. Regulating a regulator: INFγ production by the neonate. Clin Exp Allergy 1999; 29: 865-8.
115. Prescott SL, Macaubas C, Holt BJ, et al. Transplacental priming of the human immune system to environmental allergens: universal skewing of initial T cell responses toward the Th2 cytokine profile. J Immunol 1998; 160: 4730-7.
116. Koning H, Neijens HJ, Baert MR, Oranje AP, Savelkoul HF. T cell subsets and cytokines in allergic and non-allergic children. I. Analysis of IL-4, IFN-γ and IL-13 mRNA expression and protein production. Cytokine 1997; 9: 416-26.
117. Leech SC, Price JF, Holmes BJ, Kemeny DM. Nonatopic wheezy children have reduced interferon-gamma. Allergy 2000; 55: 74-78.
118. Roman M, Calhoun WJ, Hinton KL, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in infants is associated with predominant Th-2-like response. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156: 190-5.
119. Bendelja K, Gagro A, Bace A, et al. Predominant type-2 response in infants with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection demonstrated by cytokine flow cytometry. Clin Exp Immunol 2000; 121: 332-8.
120. Culley FJ, Pollot J, Openshaw PJ. Age at first viral infection determines the pattern of T cell-mediated disease during reinfection in adulthood. J Exp Med 2002; 196: 1381-6.
121. Kristjansson S, Bjarnarson SP, Wennergren G, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus and other respiratory viruses during the first 3 months of life promote a local Th2-like response. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005; 116: 805-11.
122. Hyypiä T, Puhakka T, Ruuskanen O, Mäkelä M, Arola A, Arstila P. Molecular diagnosis of human rhinovirus infections: comparison with virus isolation. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36: 2081-3.
123. Halonen P, Rocha E, Hierholzer J, et al. Detection of enteroviruses and rhinoviruses in clinical specimens by PCR and liquid-phase hybridization. J Clin Microbiol 1995; 33: 648-53.
124. Lönnrot M, Sjöroos M, Salminen K, Maaronen M, Hyypiä T, Hyöty H. Diagnosis of enterovirus and rhinovirus infections by RT-PCR and time-resolved fluorometry with lanthanide chelate labeled probes. J Med Virol 1999; 59: 378-84.
125. Myint S, Johnston S, Sanderson G, Simpson H. Evaluation of nested polymerase chain methods for the detection of human coronaviruses 229E and OC43. Mol Cell Probes 1994; 8: 357-64.
126. Johnston SL, Sanderson G, Pattemore PK, et al. Use of polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of picornavirus infection in subjects with and without respiratory symptoms. J Clin Microbiol 1993; 31: 111-7.
127. Jartti T, Lehtinen P, Vuorinen T, Koskenvuo M, Ruuskanen O. Persistence of rhinovirus and enterovirus RNA after acute respiratory illness in children. J Med Virol 2004; 72: 695-9.
128. Nokso-Koivisto J, Kinnari TJ, Lindahl P, Hovi T, Pitkäranta A. Human picomavirus and coronavirus RNA in nasopharynx of children without concurrent respiratory symptoms. J Med Virol 2002; 66: 417-20.
129. Martinez F, Godfrey S. Wheezing disorders in the preschool child. Pathophysiology and management. London and New York: Martin Dunitz, 2003.
130. Halonen M, Stein DA, Lohman C, Wright AL, Brown MA, Martinez FD. Two subphenotypes of childhood asthma that differ in maternal and paternal influences on asthma risk. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 160: 564-70.
131. Murray M, Webb MSC, O'Callaghan C, Swarbrick AS, Milner AD. Respiratory status and allergy after bronchiolitis. Arch Dis Child 1992; 67: 482-7.
132. Wennergren G, Hansson S, Engström I, et al. Characteristics and prognosis of hospital-treated obstructive bronchitis in children aged less than two years. Acta Paediatr 1992; 81: 40-5.
133. Kuikka L, Reijonen T, Remes K, Korppi M. Bronchial asthma after early childhood wheezing: a follow-up until 4.5-6 years of age. Acta Paediatr 1994; 83: 744-8.
134. Reijonen TM, Kotaniemi-Syrjänen A, Korhonen K, Korppi M. Predictors of asthma three years after hospital admission for wheezing in infancy. Pediatrics 2000; 106: 1406-12.
135. Pifferi M, Ragazzo V, Caramella D, Baldini G. Eosinophil cationic protein in infants with respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis: predictive value for subsequent development of persistent wheezing. Pediatr Pulmonol 2001; 31: 419-24.
136. Henderson J, Hilliard TN, Sherriff A, et al. Hospitalization for RSV bronchiolitis before 12 months of age and subsequent asthma, atopy and wheeze: a longitudinal birth cohort study. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2005; 16: 386-92.
137. Gurwitz D, Mindorff C, Levison H. Increased incidence of bronchial reactivity in children with a history of bronchiotitis. J Pediatr 1981; 98: 551-5.
138. Korppi M, Kuikka L, Reijonen T, Remes K, Juntunen-Backman K, Launiala K. Bronchial asthma and hyperreactivity after early childhood bronchiolitis or pneumonia. An 8-year follow-up study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1994; 148: 1079-84.
139. Noble V, Murray M, Webb MSC, Alexander J, Swarbrick AS, Milner AD. Respiratory status and allergy nine to 10 years after acute bronchiolitis. Arch Dis Child 1997; 76: 315-9.
140. Wennergren G, Åmark M, Åmark K, Óskarsdóttir S, Sten G, Redfors S. Wheezing bronchitis reinvestigated at the age of 10 years. Acta Paediatr 1997; 86: 351-5.
141. Sigurs N, Bjarnason R, Sigurbergsson F, Kjellman B. Respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis in infancy is an important risk factor for asthma and allergy at age 7. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161: 1501-7.
142. Kotaniemi-Syrjänen A, Reijonen TM, Korhonen K, Korppi M. Wheezing requiring hospitalization in early childhood: predictive factors for asthma in a six-year follow-up. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2002; 13: 418-25.
143. Sigurs N, Gustafsson PM, Bjarnason R, et al. Severe respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis in infancy and asthma and allergy at age 13. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 171: 137-41.
144. Hyvärinen MK, Kotaniemi-Syrjänen A, Reijonen TM, Korhonen K, Korppi MO. Teenage asthma after severe early childhood wheezing: an 11-year prospective follow-up. Pediatr Pulmonol 2005; 40: 316-23.
145. Hyvärinen MK, Piippo-Savolainen E, Korhonen K, Korppi M. Teenage asthma after severe infantile bronchiolitis or pneumonia. Acta Paediatr 2005; 94: 1378-83.
146. Piippo-Savolainen E, Remes S, Kannisto S, Korhonen K, Korppi M. Asthma and lung function 20 years after wheezing in infancy. Results from a prospective follow-up study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2004; 158: 1070-6.
147. Goksör E, Åmark M, Alm B, Gustafsson PM, Wennergren G. Asthma symptoms in early childhood - what happens then? Acta Paediatr 2006; 95: 471-8.
148. ISAAC Steering Committee. The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood. Worldwide variation in prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and atopic eczema: ISAAC. Lancet 1998; 351: 1225-32.
149. Osundwa VM, Dawod ST, Ehlayel M. Recurrent wheezing in children with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) bronchiolitis in Qatar. Eur J Pediatr 1993; 152: 1001-3.
150. Pullan CR, Hey EN. Wheezing, asthma, and pulmonary dysfunction 10 years after infection with respiratory syncytial virus in infancy. BMJ 1982; 284: 1665-9.
151. Hall CB, Hall WJ, Gala CL, MaGill FB, Leddy JP. Long-term prospective study in children after respiratory syncytial virus infection. J Pediatr 1984; 105: 358-64.
152. Kotaniemi-Syrjänen A, Laatikainen A, Waris M, Reijonen TM, Vainionpää R, Korppi M. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in children hospitalized for wheezing: Virus-specific studies from infancy to preschool years. Acta Paediatr 2005; 94: 159-65.
153. Stein RT, Sherrill D, Morgan WJ, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus in early life and risk of wheeze and allergy by age 13 years. Lancet 1999; 354: 541-5.
154. Holgate ST. The cellular and mediator basis of asthma in relation to natural history. Lancet 1997; 350 (Suppl II): S115-9.
155. Garofalo R, Dorris A, Ahlstedt S, Welliver RC. Peripheral blood eosinophil counts and eosinophil cationic protein content of respiratory secretions in bronchiolitis: relationship to severity of disease. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 1994; 5: 111-7.
156. Martinez FD, Stem DA, Wright AL, Taussig LM, Halonen M. Differential immune responses to acute lower respiratory illness in early life and subsequent development of persistent wheezing and asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998; 102: 915-20.
157. Ehlenfield DR, Cameron K, Welliver RC. Eosinophilia at the time of respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis predicts childhood reactive airway disease. Pediatrics 2000; 105: 79-83.
158. Øymar K, Havnen J, Halvorsen T, Bjerknes R. Eosinophil counts and urinary eosinophil protein X in children hospitalized for wheezing during the first year of life: prediction of recurrent wheezing. Acta Paediatr 2001; 90: 843-9.
159. Jartti T, Lehtinen P, Vanto T, et al. Evaluation of the efficacy of prednisolone in early wheezing induced by rhinovirus or respiratory syncytial virus. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2006; 25: 482-8.
160. Wolthers OD. Eosinophil granule proteins in the assessment of airway inflammation in pediatric bronchial asthma. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2003; 14: 248-54.
161. Koller DY, Wojnarowski C, Herkner KR, et al. High levels of eosinophil cationic protein in wheezing infants predict the development of asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997; 99: 752-6.
162. Reijonen TM, Korppi M, Kuikka L, et al. Serum eosinophil cationic protein as a predictor of wheezing after bronchiolitis. Pediatr Pulmonol 1997; 23: 397-403.
163. Reijonen TM, Korppi M, Kleemola M, et al. Nasopharyngeal eosinophil cationic protein in bronchiolitis: relation to viral findings and subsequent wheezing. Pediatr Pulmonol 1997; 24: 35-41.
164. Azevedo I, de Blic J, Vargaftig BB, Bachelet M, Scheinmann P. Increased eosinophil cationic protein levels in bronchoalveolar lavage from wheezy infants. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2001; 12: 65-72.
165. Saglani S, Malmström K, Pelkonen AS, et al. Airway remodeling and inflammation in symptomatic infants with reversible airflow obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 171: 722-7.
166. Wever-Hess J, Kouwenberg JM, Duiverman EJ, Hermans J, Wever AMJ. Prognostic characteristics of asthma diagnosis in early childhood in clinical practice. Acta Paediatr 1999; 88: 827-34.
167. Price GW, Hogan AD, Farris AH, Burks AW, Platts-Mills TAE, Heymann PW. Sensitization (IgE antibody) to food allergens in wheezing infants and children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1995; 96: 266-70.
168. Kotaniemi-Syrjänen A, Reijonen TM, Romppanen J, Korhonen K, Savolainen K, Korppi M. Allergen-specific immunolglobulin E antibodies in wheezing infants: the risk for asthma in later childhood. Pediatrics 2003; 111: e255-61.
169. Delacourt C, Labbé D, Vassault A, Brunet-Langot D, de Blic J, Scheinmann P. Sensitization to inhalant allergens in wheezing infants is predictive of the development of infantile asthma. Allergy 1994; 49: 843-7.
170. Silvestri M, Oddera S, Rossi GA, Crimi P. Sensitization to airborne allergens in children with respiratory symptoms. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1996; 76: 239-44.
171. Tridon A, Fauquert JL, Dibet P, Betail G, Labbe A. Atopy parameters in asthmatic infants. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 1999; 9: 222-8.
172. Emin Ö, Nermin G, Ülker Ö, Gökçay G. Skin sensitization to common allergens in Turkish wheezy children less than 3 years of age. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol 2004; 22: 97-101.
173. Guilbert TW, Morgan WJ, Zeiger RS, et al. Atopic characteristics of children with recurrent wheezing at risk for the development of childhood asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2004; 114: 1282-7.
174. Eysink PED, ter Riet G, Aalberse RC, et al. Accuracy of specific IgE in the prediction of asthma: development of a scoring formula for general practice. Br J Gen Pract 2005; 55: 125-31.
175. Illi S, von Mutius E, Lau S, et al. The pattern of atopic sensitization is associated with the development of asthma in childhood. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001; 108: 709-14.
176. Yunginger JW, Ahlstedt S, Eggleston PA, et al. Quantitative IgE antibody assays in allergic diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000; 105: 1077-84.
177. Kulig M, Bergmann R, Klettke U, et al. Natural course of sensitization to food and inhalant allergens during the first 6 years of life. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999; 103: 1173-9.
178. Sampson HA. Utility of food-specific IgE concentrations in predicting symptomatic food allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001; 107: 891-6.
179. Sampson HA, Ho DG. Relationship between food-specific IgE cocentrations and the risk of positive food challenges in children and adolescents. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997; 100: 444-51.
180. Sigurs N, Hattevig G, Kjellman B, Kjellmann N-IM, Nilsson L, Björkstén B. Appearance of atopic disease in relation to serum IgE antibodies in children followed up from birth for 4 to 15 years. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1994; 94: 757-63.
181. Martinez FD. Recognizing early asthma. Allergy 1999; 54 (Suppl 49): 24-8.
182. Castro-Rodriguez JA, Holberg CJ, Wright AL, Martinez FD. A clinical index to define risk of asthma in young children with recurrent wheezing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162: 1403-6.