Neuromuscular electrical stimulation in neurorehabilitation

Muscle and Nerve

Volumn 35, Issue 5, 2007, Pages 562-590

  Sheffler, Lynne R ^a   Chae, John ^a  

^a CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Bladder function; Functional electrical stimulation; Motor relearning; Neuromuscular electrical stimulation; Neuroprosthesis; Rehabilitation; Respiratory control; Spinal cord injury; Stroke

Indexed keywords

ARM MOVEMENT; BLADDER FUNCTION; CARDIOPULMONARY HEMODYNAMICS; DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMAN; LEG MOVEMENT; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; MUSCLE ATROPHY; MUSCLE FUNCTION; MUSCLE TRAINING; NEUROMUSCULAR ELECTRICAL STIMULATION; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT MOBILITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTHESIS; RESPIRATION CONTROL; REVIEW; SELF CARE; SHOULDER PAIN; SPINAL CORD INJURY; STROKE; TASK PERFORMANCE; TISSUE OXYGENATION;

CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; ELECTRIC STIMULATION THERAPY; HUMANS; MUSCLES; NERVOUS SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY; PROSTHESES AND IMPLANTS; SPINAL CORD INJURIES;

EID: 34247639405     PISSN: 0148639X     EISSN: 10974598     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/mus.20758     Document Type: Review

References (313)

1. Abbruzzese G, Assini A, Buccolieri A, Marchese R, Trompette C. Changes of intracortical inhibition during motor imagery in human subjects. Neurosci Lett 1999;263:113-116.
2. Ada L, Foongchomcheay A. Efficacy of electrical stimulation in preventing or reducing subluxation of the shoulder after stroke: a meta-analysis. Aust J Physiother 2002;48:257-267.
3. Adrian E. The physical background of perception. Oxford: Clarendon Press; 1946.
4. Agnew WF, McCreery DB. Considerations for safety with chronically implanted nerve electrodes. Epilepsia 1990;31(Suppl 2):S27-32.
5. Alon G, Dar A, Katz-Behiri D, Wingarden H, Nathan R. Efficacy of a hybrid upper limb neuromuscular electrical stimulation system in lessening selected impairments and dysfunctions consequent to cerebral damage. J Neurol Rehabil 1998;2:73-80.
6. Alon G, McBride K, Ring H. Improving selected hand functions using a noninvasive neuroprosthesis in persons with chronic stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2002;11:99-106.
7. Alon G, Sunnerhagen KS, Geurts AC, Ohry A. A home-based, self-administered stimulation program to improve selected hand functions of chronic stroke. Neurorehabilitation 2003;18:215-225.
8. Amarenco G, Ismael SS, Even-Schneider A, Raibaut P, Demaille-Wlodyka S, Parratte B, et al. Urodynamic effect of acute transcutaneous posterior tibial nerve stimulation in overactive bladder. J Urol 2003;169:2210-2215.
9. Arbuthnott ER, Boyd IA, Kalu KU. Ultrastructural dimensions of myelinated peripheral nerve fibres in the cat and their relation to conduction velocity. J Physiol (Lond) 1980;308:125-157.
10. Arcos I, Davis R, Fey K, Mishler D, Sanderson D, Tanacs C, et al. Second-generation microstimulator. Artif Organs 2002;26:228-231.
11. Asanuma H, Keller A. Neurobiological basis of motor re-learning and memory. Conc Neurosci 1991;2:1-30.
12. Asanuma H, Keller A. Neuronal mechanisms of motor learning in animals. Neuroreport 1991;2:217-224.
13. Bajd T, Kralj A, Stefancic M, Lavrac N. Use of functional electrical stimulation in the lower extremities of incomplete spinal cord injured patients. Artif Organs 1999;23:403-409.
14. Bajd T, Kralj A, Turk R. Standing up of a healthy subject and a paraplegic patient. J Biomech 1982;15:1-10.
15. Baker LL, Parker K. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation of the muscles surrounding the shoulder. Phys Ther 1986;66:1930-1937.
16. Baker LL, Parker K, Sanderson D. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation for the head-injured patient. Phys Ther 1983;63:1967-1974.
17. Baldi JC, Jackson RD, Moraille R, Mysiw WJ. Muscle atrophy is prevented in patients with acute spinal cord injury using functional electrical stimulation. Spinal Cord 1998;36:463-469.
18. Balogun JA, Biasci S, Han L. The effects of acupuncture, electroneedling and transcutaneous electrical stimulation therapies on peripheral haemodynamic functioning. Disabil Rehabil 1998;20:41-48.
19. BeDell KK, Scremin AM, Perell KL, Kunkel CF. Effects of functional electrical stimulation-induced lower extremity cycling on bone density of spinal cord-injured patients. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1996;75:29-34.
20. Belanger M, Stein RB, Wheeler GD, Gordon T, Leduc B. Electrical stimulation: can it increase muscle strength and reverse osteopenia in spinal cord injured individuals? Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000;81:1090-1098.
21. Bender L, McKenna K. Hemiplegic shoulder pain: defining the problem and its management. Disabil Rehabil 2001;23:698-705.
22. Benton LA, Baker LL, Bowman BR, Waters RL. Functional electrical stimulation: a practical clinical guide. Downey, CA: Ranchos Los Amigos Medical Center; 1981.
23. Betz RR, Mulcahey MJ, Smith BT, Triolo RJ, Weiss AA, Moynahan M, et al. Bipolar latissimus dorsi transposition and functional neuromuscular stimulation to restore elbow flexion in an individual with C4 quadriplegia and C5 denervation. J Am Paraplegia Soc 1992;15:220-228.
24. Bhadra N, Bhadra N, Kilgore K, Gustafson KJ. High frequency electrical conduction block of the pudendal nerve. J Neural Eng 2006;3:180-187.
25. Bhadra N, Kilgore KL. High-frequency electrical conduction block of mammalian peripheral motor nerve. Muscle Nerve 2005;32:782-790.
26. Bigland-Ritchie B, Jones DA, Woods JJ. Excitation frequency and muscle fatigue: electrical responses during human voluntary and stimulated contractions. Exp Neurol 1979;64:414-427.
27. Binder-Macleod SA, Snyder-Mackler L. Muscle fatigue: clinical implications for fatigue assessment and neuromuscular electrical stimulation. Phys Ther 1993;73:902-910.
28. Black J. Electrical stimulation of hard and soft tissues in animal models. Clin Plast Surg 1985;12:243-257.
29. Bogataj U, Gros N, Kljajic M, Admovic R, Malezic M. The rehabilitation of gait in patients with hemiplegia: a comparison between conventional therapy and multichannel functional electrical stimulation therapy. Phys Ther 1995;75:490-502.
30. Bogataj U, Gros N, Malezic M, Kelih B, Kljajic M, Acimovic R. Restoration of gait during two to three weeks of therapy with multichannel electrical stimulation. Phys Ther 1989;69:319-327.
31. Bogie KM, Triolo RJ. Effects of regular use of neuromuscular electrical stimulation on tissue health. J Rehabil Res Dev 2003;40:469-475.
32. Bostrom S, Holmgren E, Jonsson O, Lindberg S, Lindstrom B, Winso I, et al. Post-operative thromboembolism in neurosurgery. A study on the prophylactic effect of calf muscle stimulation plus dextran compared to low-dose heparin. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1986;80:83-89.
33. Bowman BR, Erickson RC 2nd. Acute and chronic implantation of coiled wire intraneural electrodes during cyclical electrical stimulation. Ann Biomed Eng 1985;13:75-93.
34. Bowman R, Baker L, Waters R. Positional feedback and electrical stimulation: An automated treatment for hemiplegic wrist. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1979;60:497-502.
35. Bozzo C, Spolaore B, Toniolo L, Stevens L, Bastide B, Cieniewski-Bernard C, et al. Nerve influence on myosin light chain phosphorylation in slow and fast skeletal muscles. FEBS J 2005;272:5771-5785.
36. Bradbury EJ, McMahon SB. Spinal cord repair strategies: why do they work? Nat Rev Neurosci 2006;7:644-653.
37. Brighton CT, Katz MJ, Goll SR, Nichols CE 3rd, Pollack SR. Prevention and treatment of sciatic denervation disuse osteoporosis in the rat tibia with capacitively coupled electrical stimulation. Bone 1985;6:87-97.
38. Brighton CT, Luessenhop CP, Pollack SR, Steinberg DR, Petrik ME, Kaplan FS. Treatment of castration-induced osteoporosis by a capacitively coupled electrical signal in rat vertebrae. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1989;71:228-236.
39. Brighton CT, Tadduni GT, Goll SR, Pollack SR. Treatment of denervation/disuse osteoporosis in the rat with a capacitively coupled electrical signal: effects on bone formation and bone resorption. J Orthop Res 1988;6:676-684.
40. Brighton CT, Tadduni GT, Pollack SR. Treatment of sciatic denervation disuse osteoporosis in the rat tibia with capacitively coupled electrical stimulation. Dose response and duty cycle. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1985;67:1022-1028.
41. Brindley GS. The first 500 patients with sacral anterior root stimulator implants: general description. Paraplegia 1994;32:795-805.
42. Brindley GS, Polkey CE, Rushton DN, Cardozo L. Sacral anterior root stimulators for bladder control in paraplegia: the first 50 cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1986;49:1104-1114.
43. Bryden AM, Memberg WD, Crago PE. Electrically stimulated elbow extension in persons with C5/C6 tetraplegia: a functional and physiological evaluation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000;81:80-88.
44. Burridge J, Haugland M, Larsen B, RM P, Svaneborg, N, Iversen HK, et al. A phase II study to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of the ActiGait implanted drop-foot stimulator in established hemiplegia. J Rehabil Med (in press).
45. Burridge J, Taylor P, Hagan S, Swain I. Experience of clinical use of the Odstock dropped foot stimulator. Artif Organs 1997;21:254-260.
46. Burridge JH, Taylor PN, Hagan SA, Wood DE, Swain ID. The effects of common peroneal stimulation on the effort and speed of walking: a randomized controlled trial with chronic hemiplegic patients. Clin Rehabil 1997;11:201-210.
47. Cameron T, Broton JG, Needham-Shropshire B, Klose KJ. An upper body exercise system incorporating resistive exercise and neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMS). J Spinal Cord Med 1998;21:1-6.
48. Carnstam B, Larsson LE, Prevec TS. Improvement in gait following electrical stimulation. Scand J Rehabil Med 1977;9:7-13.
49. Carpaneto J, Micera S, Zaccone F, Vecchi F, Dario P. A sensorized thumb for force closed-loop control of hand neuroprostheses. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2003;11:346-353.
50. Carraro U, Rossini K, Mayr W, Kern H. Muscle fiber regeneration in human permanent lower motoneuron denervation: relevance to safety and effectiveness of FES-training, which induces muscle recovery in SCI subjects. Artif Organs 2005;29:187-191.
51. Carter RE, Donovan WH, Halstead L, Wilkerson MA. Comparative study of electrophrenic nerve stimulation and mechanical ventilatory support in traumatic spinal cord injury. Paraplegia 1987;25:86-91.
52. Carvalho DC, Cliquet A Jr. Response of the arterial blood pressure of quadriplegic patients to treadmill gait training. Braz J Med Biol Res 2005;38:1367-1373.
53. Carvalho DC, de Cassia Zanchetta M, Sereni JM, Cliquet A. Metabolic and cardiorespiratory responses of tetraplegic subjects during treadmill walking using neuromuscular electrical stimulation and partial body weight support. Spinal Cord 2005;43:400-405.
54. Cauraugh J, Light K, Kim S, Thigpen M, Behrman A. Chronic motor dysfunction after stroke: recovering wrist and finger extension by electromyography-triggered neuromuscular stimulation. Stroke 2000;31:1360-1364.
55. Cauraugh JH, Kim S. Two coupled motor recovery protocols are better than one: electromyogram-triggered neuromuscular electrical stimulation and bilateral movements. Stroke 2002;33:1589-1594.
56. Chae J, Bethoux F, Bohinc T, Dobos L, Davis T, Friedl A. Neuromuscular stimulation for upper extremity motor and functional recovery in acute hemiplegia. Stroke 1998;29:975-979.
57. Chae J, Fang ZP, Walker M, Pourmehdi S. Intramuscular electromyographically controlled neuromuscular electrical stimulation for upper limb recovery in chronic hemiplegia. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2001;80:935-941.
58. Chae J, Hart R. Intramuscular hand neuroprosthesis for chronic stroke survivors. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2003;17:109-117.
59. Chae J, Triolo R, Kilgore K, Creasey G, DiMarco AF. Functional neuromuscular stimulation. In: DeLisa J, Gans B, editors. Physical medicine and rehabilitation: principles and practices, Vol. 2. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005. p 1405-1426.
60. Chae J, Yu DT, Walker ME, Kirsteins A, Elovic EP, Flanagan SR, et al. Intramuscular electrical stimulation for hemiplegic shoulder pain: a 12-month follow-up of a multiple-center, randomized clinical trial. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2005;84:832-842.
61. Chantraine A, Baribeault A, Uebelhart D, Gremion G. Shoulder pain and dysfunction in hemiplegia: effects of functional electrical stimulation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999;80:328-331.
62. Chen CH, Chen TW, Weng MC, Wang WT, Wang YL, Huang MH. The effect of electroacupuncture on shoulder subluxation for stroke patients. Kaohsiung J Med Sci 2000;16:525-532.
63. Chen SC, Lai CH, Chan WP, Huang MH, Tsai HW, Chen JJ. Increases in bone mineral density after functional electrical stimulation cycling exercises in spinal cord injured patients. Disabil Rehabil 2005;27:1337-1341.
64. Chen YL, Li YC, Kuo TS, Lai JS: The development of a closed-loop controlled functional electrical stimulation (FES) in gait training. J Med Eng Technol 2001;25:41-48.
65. Clemente FR, Barron KW. The influence of muscle contraction on the degree of microvascular perfusion in rat skeletal muscle following transcutaneous neuromuscular electrical stimulation. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1993;18:488-496.
66. Clemente FR, Barron KW. Transcutaneous neuromuscular electrical stimulation effect on the degree of microvascular perfusion in autonomically denervated rat skeletal muscle. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1996;77:155-160.
67. Clemente FR, Matulionis DH, Barron KW, Currier DP. Effect of motor neuromuscular electrical stimulation on microvascular perfusion of stimulated rat skeletal muscle. Phys Ther 1991;71:397-404.
68. Colombel P, Egon G. [Electrostimulation of the anterior sacral nerve roots]. Ann Urol Paris 1991;25:48-52.
69. Cozean CD, Pease WS, Hubbell SL. Biofeedback and functional electric stimulation in stroke rehabilitation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1988;69:401-405.
70. Crameri RM, Weston A, Climstein M, Davis GM, Sutton JR. Effects of electrical stimulation-induced leg training on skeletal muscle adaptability in spinal cord injury. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2002;12:316-322.
71. Creasey GH, Dahlberg JE. Economic consequences of an implanted neuroprosthesis for bladder and bowel management. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2001;82:1520-1525.
72. Creasey GH, Grill JH, Korsten M, U HS, Betz R, Anderson R, et al. An implantable neuroprosthesis for restoring bladder and bowel control to patients with spinal cord injuries: a multicenter trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2001;82:1512-1519.
73. Creasey GH, Kilgore KL, Brown-Triolo DL, Dahlberg JE, Peckham PH, Keith MW. Reduction of costs of disability using neuroprostheses. Assist Technol 2000;12:67-75.
74. Dai R, Stein RB, Andrews BJ, James KB, Wieler M. Application of tilt sensors in functional electrical stimulation. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 1996;4:63-72.
75. Daly JJ, Roenigk K, Holcomb J, Rogers JM, Butler K, Gansen J, et al. A randomized controlled trial of functional neuromuscular stimulation in chronic stroke subjects. Stroke 2006;37:172-178.
76. Daly JJ, Ruff RL, Haycook K, Strasshofer B, Marsolais EB, Dobos L. Feasibility of gait training for acute stroke patients using FNS with implanted electrodes. J Neurol Sci 2000;179:103-107.
77. Davis JA Jr, Triolo RJ, Uhlir J, Bieri C, Rohde L, Ussy D, et al. Preliminary performance of a surgically implanted neuroprosthesis for standing and transfers-where do we stand? J Rehabil Res Dev 2001;38:609-617.
78. Davis R, Eckhouse R, Patrick JF, Delehanty A. Computer-controlled 22-channel stimulator for limb movement. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1987;39S:117-120.
79. de Carvalho DC, Cliquet A Jr. Energy expenditure during rest and treadmill gait training in quadriplegic subjects. Spinal Cord 2005;43:658-663.
80. de Carvalho DC, Martins CL, Cardoso SD, Cliquet A. Improvement of metabolic and cardiorespiratory responses through treadmill gait training with neuromuscular electrical stimulation in quadriplegic subjects. Artif Organs 2006;30:56-63.
81. Delitto A, Snyder-Mackler L. Two theories of muscle strength augmentation using percutaneous electrical stimulation. Phys Ther 1990;70:158-164.
82. Deuchert M, Ruben J, Schwiemann J, Meyer R, Thees S, Krause T, et al. Event-related fMRI of the somatosensory system using electrical finger stimulation. Neuroreport 2002;13:365-369.
83. DiMarco AF, Onders RP, Ignagni A, Kowalski KE, Mortimer JT. Phrenic nerve pacing via intramuscular diaphragm electrodes in tetraplegic subjects. Chest 2005;127:671-678.
84. DiMarco AF, Takaoka Y, Kowalski KE. Combined intercostal and diaphragm pacing to provide artificial ventilation in patients with tetraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005;86:1200-1207.
85. Dobelle WH, D'Angelo MS, Goetz BF, Kiefer DG, Lallier TJ, Lamb JI, et al. 200 cases with a new breathing pacemaker dispels myths about diaphragm pacing. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 1994;40:244-252.
86. Donaldson N, Rushton D, Tromans T. Neuroprostheses for leg function after spinal cord injury. Lancet 1997;350:711.
87. Douglas AJ, Walsh EG, Wright GW, Creasey GH, Edmond P. The effects of neuromuscular stimulation on muscle tone at the knee in paraplegia. Exp Physiol 1991;76:357-367.
88. Dupont A-C, Bagg SD, Creasey JL, Romano C, Romano D, Loeb GE, et al. Clinical trials of BION injectable neuromuscular stimulators. 6th Annual Conference of the International Functional Electrical Stimulation Society, Cleveland, OH; June 16-20, 2001.
89. Dupont Salter AC, Richmond FJ, Loeb GE. Prevention of muscle disuse atrophy by low-frequency electrical stimulation in rats. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2003;11:218-226.
90. Durfee WK, Rivard A. Design and simulation of a pneumatic, stored-energy, hybrid orthosis for gait restoration. J Biomech Eng 2005;127:1014-1019.
91. Edstrom L, Grimby L. Effect of exercise on the motor unit. Muscle Nerve 1986;9:104-126.
92. Egon G, Barat M, Colombel P, Visentin C, Isambert JL, Guerin J. Implantation of anterior sacral root stimulators combined with posterior sacral rhizotomy in spinal injury patients. World J Urol 1998;16:342-349.
93. Elefteriades JA, Quin JA, Hogan JF, Holcomb WG, Letsou GV, Chlosta WF, et al. Long-term follow-up of pacing of the conditioned diaphragm in quadriplegia. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2002;25:897-906.
94. Eser P, de Bruin ED, Telley I, Lechner HE, Knecht H, Stussi E. Effect of electrical stimulation-induced cycling on bone mineral density in spinal cord-injured patients. Eur J Clin Invest 2003;33:412-419.
95. Faghri PD, Rodgers MM, Glaser RM, Bors JG, Ho C, Akuthota P. The effects of functional electrical stimulation on shoulder subluxation, arm function recovery, and shoulder pain in hemiplegic stroke patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1994;75:73-79.
96. Faghri PD, Van Meerdervort HF, Glaser RM, Figoni SF. Electrical stimulation-induced contraction to reduce blood stasis during arthroplasty. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 1997;5:62-69.
97. Fasoli SE, Krebs HI, Hogan N. Robotic technology and stroke rehabilitation: translating research into practice. Top Stroke Rehabil 2004;11:11-19.
98. Ferrante S, Pedrocchi A, Ianno M, De Momi E, Ferrarin M, Ferrigno G. Functional electrical stimulation controlled by artificial neural networks: pilot experiments with simple movements are promising for rehabilitation applications. Funct Neurol 2004;19:243-252.
99. Fields RW. Electromyographically triggered electric muscle stimulation for chronic hemiplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1987;68:407-414.
100. Fodstad H. The Swedish experience in phrenic nerve stimulation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1987;10:246-251.
101. Franceschini M, Baratta S, Zampolini M, Loria D, Lotta S. Reciprocating gait orthosis: a multicenter study of their use by spinal cord injured patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1997;78:582-586.
102. Francisco G, Chae J, Chawla H, Kirshblum S, Zorowitz R, Lewis G, et al. Electromyogram-triggered neuromuscular stimulation for improving the arm function of acute stroke survivors: a randomized pilot study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1998;79:570-575.
103. Frey Law LA, Shields RK. Predicting human chronically paralyzed muscle force: a comparison of three mathematical models. J Appl Physiol 2006;100:1027-1036.
104. Fry AC, Allemeier CA, Staron RS. Correlation between percentage fiber type area and myosin heavy chain content in human skeletal muscle. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1994;68:246-251.
105. Gallien P, Brissot R, Eyssette M, Tell L, Barat M, Wiart L, et al. Restoration of gait by functional electrical stimulation for spinal cord injured patients. Paraplegia 1995;33:660-664.
106. Galvani L. Collezione delle Opera. Bologna, 1841. p 17-27.
107. Glenn WW, Brouillette RT, Dentz B, Fodstad H, Hunt CE, Keens TG, et al. Fundamental considerations in pacing of the diaphragm for chronic ventilatory insufficiency: a multicenter study. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1988;11:2121-2127.
108. Glenn WW, Hogan JF, Loke JS, Ciesielski TE, Phelps ML, Rowedder R. Ventilatory support by pacing of the conditioned diaphragm in quadriplegia. N Engl J Med 1984;310:1150-1155.
109. Glenn WW, Hogan JF, Phelps ML. Ventilatory support of the quadriplegic patient with respiratory paralysis by diaphragm pacing. Surg Clin North Am 1980;60:1055-1078.
110. Glenn WW, Holcomb WG, Hogan J, Matano I, Gee JB, Motoyama EK, et al. Diaphragm pacing by radiofrequency transmission in the treatment of chronic ventilatory insufficiency. Present status. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1973;66:505-520.
111. Glenn WW, Phelps ML. Diaphragm pacing by electrical stimulation of the phrenic nerve. Neurosurgery 1985;17:974-984.
112. Glenn WW, Sairenji H. Diaphragm pacing in the treatment of chronic ventilatory insufficiency. In: Roussos C, Macklem PT, editors. The thorax: lung biology in health and disease, Vol. 29. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1985. p 1407.
113. Goldstein LB. Neuropharmacology of TBI-induced plasticity. Brain Inj 2003;17:685-694.
114. Granat MH, Ferguson AC, Andrews BJ, Delargy M. The role of functional electrical stimulation in the rehabilitation of patients with incomplete spinal cord injury-observed benefits during gait studies. Paraplegia 1993;31:207-215.
115. Grandjean PA, Mortimer JT. Recruitment properties of monopolar and bipolar epimysial electrodes. Ann Biomed Eng 1986;14:53-66.
116. Graupe D, Kohn K. Functional electrical stimulation for ambulation by paraplegics. Malabar, FL: Krieger; 1994.
117. Gregory CM, Williams RH, Vandenborne K, Dudley GA. Metabolic and phenotypic characteristics of human skeletal muscle fibers as predictors of glycogen utilization during electrical stimulation. Eur J Appl Physiol 2005;95:276-282.
118. Grill WM, Mortimer JT. Neural and connective tissue response to long-term implantation of multiple contact nerve cuff electrodes. J Biomed Mater Res 2000;50:215-226.
119. Hainaut K, Duchateau J. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation and voluntary exercise. Sports Med 1992;14:100-113.
120. Han BS, Jang SH, Chang Y, Byun WM, Lim SK, Kang DS. Functional magnetic resonance image finding of cortical activation by neuromuscular electrical stimulation on wrist extensor muscles. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2003;82:17-20.
121. Handa I, Matsushita N, Ihashi K, Yagi R, Mochizuki R, Mochizuki H, et al. A clinical trial of therapeutic electrical stimulation for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Tohoku J Exp Med 1995;175:123-134.
122. Handa Y, Handa T, Ichie M, Murakami H, Hoshimiya N, Ishikawa S, et al. Functional electrical stimulation (FES) systems for restoration of motor function of paralyzed muscles-versatile systems and a portable system. Front Med Biol Eng 1992;4:241-255.
123. Handa Y, Hoshimiya N. Functional electrical stimulation for the control of the upper extremities. Med Prog Technol 1987;12:51-63.
124. Handa Y, Hoshimiya N, Iguchi Y, Oda T. Development of percutaneous intramuscular electrode for multichannel FES system. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1989;36:706-710.
125. Hart RL, Kilgore KL, Peckham PH. A comparison between control methods for implanted FES hand-grasp systems. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 1998;6:208-218.
126. Hebb DO. The organization of behavior: a neuropsychological theory. New York: John Wiley Sc Sons; 1949.
127. Henneman E. Relation between size of neurons and their susceptibility to discharge. Science 1957;126:1345-1347.
128. Henneman E, Somjen G, Carpenter DO. Functional significance of cell size in spinal motoneurons. J Neurophysiol 1965;28:560-580.
129. Ho CL, Holt KG, Saltzman E, Wagenaar RC. Functional electrical stimulation changes dynamic resources in children with spastic cerebral palsy. Phys Ther 2006;86:987-1000.
130. Hodgkin A, Huxley, A. A quantitative description of ion currents and its applications to conduction and excitation in nerve membranes. J Physiol 1952;117:500-544.
131. Hodgkin A, Rushton WAH. The electrical constants of a crustacean nerve fibre. Proc R Soc Lond B 1946;133:444-479.
132. Hodgkin AL. The conduction of the nervous impulse. Springfield, IL: Thomas; 1964.
133. Hoffer JA, Loeb GE. Implantable electrical and mechanical interfaces with nerve and muscle. Ann Biomed Eng 1980;8:351-360.
134. Hoffer JA, Stein RB, Haugland MK, Sinkjaer T, Durfee WK, Schwartz AB, et al. Neural signals for command control and feedback in functional neuromuscular stimulation: a review. J Rehabil Res Dev 1996;33:145-157.
135. Hooker SP, Scremin AM, Mutton DL, Kunkel CF, Cagle G. Peak and submaximal physiologic responses following electrical stimulation leg cycle ergometer training. J Rehabil Res Dev 1995;32:361-366.
136. Hunt CE, Brouillette RT, Weese-Mayer DE, Morrow A, Ilbawi MN. Diaphragm pacing in infants. Technique and results. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1988;11:2135-2141.
137. Ilbawi MN, Idriss FS, Hunt CE, Brouillette RT, DeLeon SY. Diaphragmatic pacing in infants: techniques and results. Ann Thorac Surg 1985;40:323-329.
138. Jacobs PL, Nash MS. Exercise recommendations for individuals with spinal cord injury. Sports Med 2004;34:727-751.
139. Jacobs PL, Nash MS, Klose KJ, Guest RS, Needham-Shropshire BM, Green BA. Evaluation of a training program for persons with SCI paraplegia using the Parastep 1 ambulation system: part 2. Effects on physiological responses to peak arm ergometry. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1997;78:794-798.
140. Jaeger RJ, Yarkony GM, Smith RM. Standing the spinal cord injured patient by electrical stimulation: refinement of a protocol for clinical use. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1989;36:720-728.
141. Jezernik S, Craggs M, Grill WM, Creasey G, Rijkhoff NJ. Electrical stimulation for the treatment of bladder dysfunction: current status and future possibilities. Neurol Res 2002;24:413-430.
142. Johnson MW, Peckham PH. Evaluation of shoulder movement as a command control source. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1990;37:876-885.
143. Johnson MW, Peckham PH, Bhadra N, Kilgore KL, Gazdik MM, Keith MW, et al. Implantable transducer for two-degree of freedom joint angle sensing. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 1999;7:349-359.
144. Jostarndt-Fogen K, Puntschart A, Hoppeler H, Billeter R. Fibre-type specific expression of fast and slow essential myosin light chain mRNAs in trained human skeletal muscles. Acta Physiol Scand 1998;164:299-308.
145. Juch PJ, Minkels RF. The strap-electrode: a stimulating and recording electrode for small nerves. Brain Res Bull 1989;22:917-918.
146. Kantor C, Andrews BJ, Marsolais EB, Solomonow M, Lew RD, Ragnarrson KT. Report on a conference on motor prostheses for workplace mobility of paraplegic patients in North America. Paraplegia 1993;31:439-456.
147. Kaplan RE, Czyrny JJ, Fung TS, Unsworth JD, Hirsh J. Electrical foot stimulation and implications for the prevention of venous thromboembolic disease. Thromb Haemost 2002;88:200-204.
148. Kenney L, Bultstra G, Buschman R, Taylor P, Mann G, Hermens H, et al. An implantable two channel drop foot stimulator: initial clinical results. Artif Organs 2002;26:267-270.
149. Kern H, Salmons S, Mayr W, Rossini K, Carraro U. Recovery of long-term denervated human muscles induced by electrical stimulation. Muscle Nerve 2005;31:98-101.
150. Khaslavskaia S, Sinkjaer T. Motor cortex excitability following repetitive electrical stimulation of the common peroneal nerve depends on the voluntary drive. Exp Brain Res 2005;162:497-502.
151. Kilgore KL, Bhadra N. Nerve conduction block utilising high-frequency alternating current. Med Biol Eng Comput 2004;42:394-406.
152. Kilgore KL, Peckham PH, Keith MW, Montague FW, Hart RL, Gazdik MM, et al. Durability of implanted electrodes and leads in an upper-limb neuroprosthesis. J Rehabil Res Dev 2003;40:457-468.
153. Kilgore KL, Peckham PH, Keith MW, Thrope GB. Electrode characterization for functional application to upper extremity FNS. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1990;37:12-21.
154. Kim JH, Manuelidis EE, Glen WW, Kaneyuki T. Diaphragm pacing: histopathological changes in the phrenic nerve following long-term electrical stimulation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1976;72:602-608.
155. Kim Y, Schmit BD, Youm Y. Stimulation parameter optimization for functional electrical stimulation assisted gait in human spinal cord injury using response surface methodology. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2006;21:485-494.
156. Kimberley TJ, Lewis SM, Auerbach EJ, Dorsey LL, Lojovich JM, Carey JR. Electrical stimulation driving functional improvements and cortical changes in subjects with stroke. Exp Brain Res 2004;154:450-460.
157. Kleim JA, Barbay S, Nudo RJ. Functional reorganization of the rat motor cortex following motor skill learning. J Neurophysiol 1998;80:3321-3325.
158. Kljajic M, Malezic M, Acimovic R, Vavken E, Stanic U, Pangrsic B, et al. Gait evaluation in hemiparetic patients using subcutaneous peroneal electrical stimulation. Scand J Rehabil Med 1992;24:121-126.
159. Knutson JS, Hoyen HA, Kilgore KL, Peckham PH. Simulated neuroprosthesis state activation and hand-position control using myoelectric signals from wrist muscles. J Rehabil Res Dev 2004;41:461-472.
160. Knutson JS, Naples GG, Peckham PH, Keith WM. Electrode fracture rate and occurrences of infection and granuloma associated with percutaneous intramuscular electrodes in upper-limb functional electrical stimulation application. J Rehabil Res Dev 2003;39:671-684.
161. Kobayashi H, Onishi H, Ihashi K, Yagi R, Handa Y. Reduction in subluxation and improved muscle function of the hemiplegic shoulder joint after therapeutic electrical stimulation. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 1999;9:327-336.
162. Kobetic R, Marsolais EB. Synthesis of paraplegic gait with multichannel functional neuromuscular stimulation. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1994;2:66-67.
163. Kobetic R, Marsolais EB, Samane P, Borges G. The next step: artificial walking. In: Rose J, Ganble JG, editors. Human walking. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1994. p 225-252.
164. Kobetic R, Marsolais EB, Triolo RJ, Davy DT, Gaudio R, Tashman S. Development of a hybrid gait orthosis: a case report. J Spinal Cord Med 2003;26:254-258.
165. Kobetic R, Triolo RJ, Uhlir JP, Bieri C, Wibowo M, Polando G, et al. Implanted functional electrical stimulation system for mobility in paraplegia: a follow-up case report. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 1999;7:390-398.
166. Kraft GH, Fitts SS, Hammond MC. Techniques to improve function of the arm and hand in chronic hemiplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1992;73:220-227.
167. Krakauer JW. Motor learning: its relevance to stroke recovery and neurorehabilitation. Curr Opin Neurol 2006;19:84-90.
168. Kralj A, Bajd T. Functional electrical stimulation: standing and walking after spinal cord injury. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1989.
169. Kralj A, Bajd T, Kvesic Z, Turk R. Electrical stimulation of incomplete paraplegic patients/Proc 4th Annual RESNA Conference, Washington, DC; 1981.
170. Krebs HI, Volpe BT, Aisen ML, Hogan N. Increasing productivity and quality of care: robot-aided neuro-rehabilitation. J Rehabil Res Dev 2000;37:639-652.
171. Kubis HP, Hanke N, Scheibe RJ, Meissner JD, Gros G. Ca2+ transients activate calcineurin/NFATc1 and initiate fast-to-slow transformation in a primary skeletal muscle culture. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2003;285:C56-63.
172. Kubis HP, Scheibe RJ, Meissner JD, Hornung G, Gros G. Fast-to-slow transformation and nuclear import/export kinetics of the transcription factor NFATc1 during electrostimulation of rabbit muscle cells in culture. J Physiol (Lond) 2002;541:835-847.
173. Kugelberg E, Edstrom L. Differential histochemical effects of muscle contractions on phosphorylase and glycogen in various types of fibres: relation to fatigue. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1968;31:415-423.
174. Lake DA. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation. An overview and its application in the treatment of sports injuries. Sports Med 1992;13:320-336.
175. Lapicque L. Recherches quantitatives sur l'excitation electrique des nerfs traitee comme une polarization. J Physiol Pathol Gen 1907;9:620-635.
176. Larsen JO, Thomsen M, Haugland M, Sinkjaer T. Degeneration and regeneration in rabbit peripheral nerve with long-term nerve cuff electrode implant: a stereological study of myelinated and unmyelinated axons. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1998;96:365-378.
177. Lauer RT, Peckham PH, Kilgore KL. EEG-based control of a hand grasp neuroprosthesis. Neuroreport 1999;10:1767-1771.
178. Lauer RT, Peckham PH, Kilgore KL, Heetderks WJ. Applications of cortical signals to neuroprosthetic control: a critical review. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 2000;8:205-208.
179. Leandri M, Parodi CI, Corrieri N, Rigardo S. Comparison of TENS treatments in hemiplegic shoulder pain. Scand J Rehabil Med 1990;22:69-71.
180. Lee RG, van Donkelaar P. Mechanisms underlying functional recovery following stroke. Can J Neurol Sci 1995;22:257-263.
181. Leeds EM, Klose KJ, Ganz W, Serafmi A, Green BA. Bone mineral density
182. Lemay MA, Crago PE, Keith MW. Restoration of pronosupination control by FNS in tetraplegia-experimental and biomechanical evaluation of feasibility. J Biomech 1996;29:435-442.
183. Lertmanorat Z, Durand DM. Extracellular voltage profile for reversing the recruitment order of peripheral nerve stimulation: a simulation study. J Neural Eng 2004;1:202-211.
184. Levin MF, Hui-Chan CW. Relief of hemiparetic spasticity by TENS is associated with improvement in reflex and voluntary motor functions. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1992;85:131-142.
185. Lewek M, Stevens J, Snyder-Mackler L. The use of electrical stimulation to increase quadriceps femoris muscle force in an elderly patient following a total knee arthroplasty. Phys Ther 2001;81:1565-1571.
186. Li M. Electrical stimulation in the treatment of osteoporosis in sciatic denervated rat tibia. Zhonghua Wai Ke Za Zhi 1992;30:458-460, 508.
187. Lieberson W, Holmquest H, Scot D, Dow M. Functional electrotherapy: stimulation of the peroneal nerve synchronized with the swing phase of the gait of hemiplegia patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1961;42:101-105.
188. Linn SL, Granat MH, Lees KR. Prevention of shoulder subluxation after stroke with electrical stimulation. Stroke 1999;30:963-968.
189. Ljubicic V, Adhihetty PJ, Hood DA. Application of animal models: chronic electrical stimulation-induced contractile activity. Can J Appl Physiol 2005;30:625-643.
190. Loeb GE, Zamin CJ, Schulman JH, Troyk PR. Indictable microstimulator for functional electrical stimulation. Med Biol Eng 1991;29:NS13-NS19.
191. MacDonagh RP, Forster DM, Thomas DG. Urinary continence in spinal injury patients following complete sacral posterior rhizotomy. Br J Urol 1990;66:618-622.
192. MacDonagh RP, Sun WM, Smallwood R, Forster D, Read NW. Control of defecation in patients with spinal injuries by stimulation of sacral anterior nerve roots. BMJ 1990;300:1494-1497.
193. Madersbacher H, Fischer J, Ebner A. Anterior sacral root stimulator (Brindley): experience especially in women with neurogenic urinary incontinence. Neurourol Urodyn 1988;7:593-601.
194. Maimoun L, Fattal C, Micallef JP, Peruchon E, Rabischong P. Bone loss in spinal cord-injured patients: from physiopathology to therapy. Spinal Cord 2006;44:203-210.
195. Mansfield A, Lyons GM. The use of accelerometry to detect heel contact events for use as a sensor in FES assisted walking. Med Eng Phys 2003;25:879-885.
196. Marsolais EB, Kobetic R. Implantation technique and experience with percutaneous intramuscular electrodes in the lower extremities. J Rehab Res Dev 1986;23:1-8.
197. Marsolais EB, Kobetic R, Chizeck HJ, Jacobs JL. Orthoses and electrical stimulation for walking in complete paraplegics. J Neurorehab 1991;5:13-22.
198. Matheson GO, Dunlop RJ, McKenzie DC, Smith CF, Allen PS. Force output and energy metabolism during neuromuscular electrical stimulation: a 31P-NMR study. Scand J Rehabil Med 1997;29:175-180.
199. McDonald JW. Repairing the damaged spinal cord: from stem cells to activity-based restoration therapies. Clin Neurosurg 2004;51:207-227.
200. McNeal DR. Analysis of a model for excitation of myelinated nerve. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1976;23:329-337.
201. Memberg W PP, Keith MH. A surgically implanted intramuscular electrode for an implantable neuromuscular stimulation system. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1994;2:80-91.
202. Memberg WD, Peckham PH, Thorpe GB, Keith MW, Richer TP. An analysis of the reliability of percutaneous intramuscular electrodes in upper extremity FNS applications. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 1993;1:126-132.
203. Merletti R, Acimovic R, Grobelnik S, Cvilak G. Electrophysiological orthosis for the upper extremity in hemiplegia: feasibility study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1975;56:507-513.
204. Merletti R, Zelaschi F, Latella D, Galli M, Angeli S, Sessa MB. A control study of muscle force recovery in hemiparetic patients during treatment with functional electrical stimulation. Scand J Rehabil Med 1978;10:147-154.
205. Merli GJ, Crabbe S, Paluzzi RG, Fritz D. Etiology, incidence, and prevention of deep vein thrombosis in acute spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1993;74:1199-1205.
206. Middleton JW, Yeo JD, Blanch L, Vare V, Peterson K, Brigden K. Clinical evaluation of a new orthosis, the 'walkabout', for restoration of functional standing and short distance mobility in spinal paralysed individuals. Spinal Cord 1997;35:574-579.
207. Moe JH, Post HW. Functional electrical stimulation for ambulation in hemiplegia. J Lancet 1962;82:285-288.
208. Mollard JM, Prevot JM, Baulande M. [Prevention of deep venous thrombosis by physical methods. Use of an external electrical stimulator. Initial results in surgery of the hip]. Phlebologie 1985;38:293-305.
209. Mortimer JT. Motor prostheses. In: Brookhart JM, Mountcastle VB, editors. Handbook of physiology: the nervous system II. Bethesda, MD: American Physiolgical Society; 1981. p 155-187.
210. Nannini N, Horch K. Muscle recruitment with intrafascicular electrodes. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1991;38:769-776.
211. Naples GG, Mortimer JT, Scheiner A, Sweeney JD. A spiral nerve cuff electrode for peripheral nerve stimulation. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1988;35:905-916.
212. Nudo RJ, Milliken GW. Reorganization of movement representations in primary motor cortex following focal ischemic infarcts in adult squirrel monkeys. J Neurophysiol 1996;75:2144-2149.
213. Nudo RJ, Plautz EJ, Frost SB. Role of adaptive plasticity in recovery of function after damage to motor cortex. Muscle Nerve 2001;24:1000-1019.
214. Nudo RJ, Plautz EJ, Frost SB. Role of adaptive plasticity in recovery of function after damage to motor cortex. Muscle Nerve 2001;24:1000-1019.
215. Nudo RJ, Wise BM, SiFuentes F, Milliken GW. Neural substrates for the effects of rehabilitative training on motor recovery after ischemic infarct. Science 1996;272:1791-1794.
216. Ogino M, Shiba N, Maeda T, Iwasa K, Tagawa Y, Matsuo S, et al. MRI quantification of muscle activity after volitional exercise and neuromuscular electrical stimulation. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2002;81:446-451.
217. Oostra K, Van Laere M, Scheirlinck B. Use of electrical stimulation in brain-injured patients: a case report. Brain Inj 1997;11:761-764.
218. Orlin MN, Pierce SR, Stackhouse CL, Smith BT, Johnston T, Shewokis PA, et al. Immediate effect of percutaneous intramuscular stimulation during gait in children with cerebral palsy: a feasibility study. Dev Med Child Neurol 2005;47:684-690.
219. Ott SM. Osteoporosis in women with spinal cord injuries. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am 2001;12:111-131.
220. Paillard T, Noe F, Passelergue P, Dupui P. Electrical stimulation superimposed onto voluntary muscular contraction. Sports Med 2005;35:951-966.
221. Peckham PH, Keith MW, Freehafer AA. Restoration of functional control by electrical stimulation in the upper extremity of the quadriplegic patient. J Bone Joint Surg [Am] 1988;70:144-148.
222. Peckham PH, Keith MW, Kilgore KL, Grill JH, Wuolle KS, Thrope GB, et al. Efficacy of an implanted neuroprosthesis for restoring hand grasp in tetraplegia: a multicenter study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2001;82:1380-1388.
223. Peckham PH, Knutson JS. Functional electrical stimulation for neuromuscular applications. Annu Rev Biomed Eng 2005;7:327-360.
224. Peckham PH, Mortimer JT, Marsolais EB. Alteration in the force and fatigability of skeletal muscle in quadriplegic humans following exercise induced by chronic electrical stimulation. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1976;114:326-333.
225. Peckham PH, Mortimer JT, Van Der Meulen JP. Physiologic and metabolic changes in white muscle of cat following induced exercise. Brain Res 1973;50:424-429.
226. Pekindil Y, Sarikaya A, Birtane M, Pekindil G, Salan A. 99mTc-sestamibi muscle scintigraphy to assess the response to neuromuscular electrical stimulation of normal quadriceps femoris muscle. Ann Nucl Med 2001;15:397-401.
227. Fette D, Muller W, Leisner E, Vrbova G. Time dependent effects on contractile properties, fibre population, myosin light chains and enzymes of energy metabolism in intermittently and continuously stimulated fast twitch muscles of the rabbit. Pflugers Arch 1976;364:103-112.
228. Phillips W, Burkett LN, Munro R, Davis M, Pomeroy K. Relative changes in blood flow with functional electrical stimulation during exercise of the paralyzed lower limbs. Paraplegia 1995;33:90-93.
229. Pitcher JB, Ridding MC, Miles TS. Frequency-dependent, bi-directional plasticity in motor cortex of human adults. Clin Neurophysiol 2003;114:1265-1271.
230. Plautz EJ, Milliken GW, Nudo RJ. Effects of repetitive motor training on movement representations in adult squirrel monkeys: role of use versus learning. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2000;74:27-55.
231. Popovic DB, Popovic MB, Sinkjaer T, Stefanovic A, Schwirtlich L. Therapy of paretic arm in hemiplegic subjects augmented with a neural prosthesis: a cross-over study. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2004;82:749-756.
232. Popovic DB, Stein RB, Jovanovic KL, Dai R, Rostov A, Armstrong WW. Sensory nerve recording for closed-loop control to restore motor functions. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1993;40:1024-1031.
233. Postans NJ, Granat MH. Effect of functional electrical stimulation, applied during walking, on gait in spastic cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2005;47:46-52.
234. Powell J, Pandyan AD, Granat M, Cameron M, Stott DJ. Electrical stimulation of wrist extensors in poststroke hemiplegia. Stroke 1999;30:1384-1389.
235. Price CI, Pandyan AD. Electrical stimulation for preventing and treating post-stroke shoulder pain: a systematic Cochrane review. Clin Rehabil 2001;15:5-19.
236. Quevedo AA, Cliquet Junior A. A paradigm for design of closed loop neuromuscular electrical stimulator control systems. Artif Organs 1995;19:280-284.
237. Quintern J, Riener R, Rupprecht S. Comparison of simulation and experiments of different closed-loop strategies for functional electrical stimulation: experiments in paraplegics. Artif Organs 1997;21:232-235.
238. Rebersek S, Vodovnik L. Proportionally controlled functional electrical stimulation of hand. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1973;54:378-382.
239. Ridding MC, Rothwell JC. Afferent input and cortical organization: a study with magnetic stimulation. Exp Brain Res 1999;126:536-544.
240. Riess J, Abbas, JJ. Adaptive neural network control of cyclic movements using functional neuromuscular stimulation. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 2000;8:42-52.
241. Rijkhoff NJ. Neuroprostheses to treat neurogenic bladder dysfunction; current status and future perspectives. Childs Nerv Syst 2004;20:75-86.
242. Riley DA, Allin EF. The effects of inactivity, programmed stimulation, and denervation on the histochemistry of skeletal muscle fiber types. Exp Neurol 1973;40:391-413.
243. Robinson LQ, Grant A, Weston P, Stephenson TP, Lucas M, Thomas DG. Experience with the Brindley anterior sacral root stimulator. Br J Urol 1988;62:553-557.
244. Rodgers MM, Glaser RM, Figoni SF, Hooker SP, Ezenwa BN, Collins SR, et al. Musculoskeletal responses of spinal cord injured individuals to functional neuromuscular stimulation-induced knee extension exercise training. J Rehabil Res Dev 1991;28:19-26.
245. Rose FD, Brooks BM, Rizzo AA. Virtual reality in brain damage rehabilitation: review. Cyberpsychol Behav 2005;8:241-262.
246. Rushton D. Functional electrical stimulation and rehabilitation-an hypothesis. Med Eng Phys 2003;25:75-78.
247. Rushton DN, Brindley GS, Polkey CE, Browning GV. Implant infections and antibiotic-impregnated silicone rubber coating. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989;52:223-229.
248. Rushton W. A theory of the effects of fibre size in medullated nerve. J Physiol 1951;115:101-122.
249. Ruud Bosch JL, Groen J. Treatment of refractory urge urinary incontinence with sacral spinal nerve stimulation in multiple sclerosis patients. Lancet 1996;348:717-719.
250. Sabatier MJ, Stoner L, Mahoney ET, Black C, Elder C, Dudley GA, et al. Electrically stimulated resistance training in SCI individuals increases muscle fatigue resistance but not femoral artery size or blood flow. Spinal Cord 2006;44:227-233.
251. Saitoh E, Suzuki T, Sonoda S, Fujitani J, Tomita Y, Chino N. Clinical experience with a new hip-knee-ankle-foot orthotic system using a medial single hip joint for paraplegic standing and walking. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1996;75:198-203.
252. Sheffler LR, Hennessey M, Naples GG, Chae J. Peroneal nerve stimulation versus an ankle foot orthosis for correction of footdrop in stroke: impact in functional ambulation. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2006;20:355-360.
253. Sherry JE, Oehrlein KM, Hegge KS, Morgan BJ. Effect of burst-mode transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation on peripheral vascular resistance. Phys Ther 2001;81:1183-1191.
254. Shimada Y, Hatakeyama K, Minato T, Matsunaga T, Sato M, Chida S, et al. Hybrid functional electrical stimulation with medial linkage knee-ankle-foot orthoses in complete paraplegics. Tohoku J Exp Med 2006;209:117-123.
255. Shimada Y, Sato K, Kagaya H, Konishi N, Miyamoto S, Matsunaga T. Clinical use of percutaneous intramuscular electrodes for functional electrical stimulation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1996;77:1014-1018.
256. Sieck GC, Prakash YS. Morphological adaptations of neuromuscular junctions depend on fiber type. Can J Appl Physiol 1997;22:197-230.
257. Simcox S, Parker S, Davis GM, Smith RW, Middleton JW. Performance of orientation sensors for use with a functional electrical stimulation mobility system. J Biomech 2005;38:1185-1190.
258. Sinclair PJ, Davis GM, Smith RM, Cheam BS, Sutton JR. Pedal forces produced during neuromuscular electrical stimulation cycling in paraplegics. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 1996;11:51-57.
259. Sinkjaer T, Haugland M, Inmann A, Hansen M, Nielsen KD. Biopotentials as command and feedback signals in functional electrical stimulation systems. Med Eng Phys 2003;25:29-40.
260. Smith B, Peckham PH, Keith MW, Roscoe DD. An externally powered, multichannel implantable stimulator for versatile control of paralyzed muscle. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1987;34:499-508.
261. Smith BT, Betz RR, Mulcahey MJ, Triolo RJ. Reliability of percutaneous intramuscular electrodes for upper extremity functional neuromuscular stimulation in adolescents with C5 tetraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1994;75:939-945.
262. Smith GV, Alon G, Roys SR, Gullapalli P. Functional MRI determination of a dose-response relationship to lower extremity neuromuscular electrical stimulation in healthy subjects. Exp Brain Res 2003;150:33-39.
263. Snels IA, Dekker JH, van der Lee JH, Lankhorst GJ, Beckerman H, Bouter LM. Treating patients with hemiplegic shoulder pain. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2002;81:150-160.
264. Snoek GJ, Ijzerman MJ, in't Groen FA, Staffers TS, Zilvold G. Use of the NESS Handmaster to restore hand function in tetraplegia. Spinal Cord 2000;38:244-249.
265. Solomonow M. Biomechanics and physiology of a practical functional neuromuscular stimulation powered walking orthosis for paraplegics. In: Stein RB, Peckham PH, Popovic DP, editors. Neural prostheses: replacing motor function after disease or disability. New York: Oxford University Press; 1992. p 202-232.
266. Solomonow M, Baratta RV, Hirokawa S. The RGO generation II: muscle stimulation powered orthosis as a practical walking system for paraplegics. Orthopaedics 1989;12:1309-1315.
267. Solomonow M, Reisin E, Aguilar E, Baratta RV, Best R, D'Ambrosia R, Reciprocating gait orthosis powered with electrical muscle stimulation (RGO II). Part II. Medical evaluation of 70 paraplegic patients. Orthopedics 1997;20:411-418.
268. Sonde L, Gip C, Ferneus S, Nilsson C, Viitanen M. Stimulation with low frequency (1/7 Hz) transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (Low-TENS) increases motor function of post-stroke hemiparetic arm. Scand J Rehabil Med 1998;30:95-99.
269. Sonde L, Kalimo H, Fernaeus SE, Viitanen M. Low TENS treatment on post-stroke paretic arm: a three-year follow-up. Clin Rehabil 2000;14:14-19.
270. Spiegel J, Tintera J, Gawehn J, Stoeter P, Treede RD. Functional MRI of human primary somatosensory and motor cortex during median nerve stimulation. Clin Neurophysiol 1999;110:47-52.
271. Stanic U, Acimovic-Janezic R, Gros N, Trnkoczy A, Bajd T, Kljajic M. Multichannel electrical stimulation for correction of hemiplegic gait. Methodology and preliminary results. Scand J Rehabil Med 1978;10:75-92.
272. Stefancic M, Rebersek M, Merletti R. The therapeutic effects of the Ljubljana functional electrical brace. Eur Medicophys 1976;12:1-9.
273. Stein RB, Nichols TR, Jhamandas J, Davis L, Charles D. Stable long-term recordings from cat peripheral nerves. Brain Res 1977;128:21-38.
274. Stevens JE, Mizner RL, Snyder-Mackler L. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation for quadriceps muscle strengthening after bilateral total knee arthroplasty: a case series. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2004;34:21-29.
275. Strange KD, Hoffer JA. Restoration of use of paralyzed limb muscles using sensory nerve signals for state control of FES-assisted walking. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 1999;7:289-300.
276. Sweeney JD, Mortimer JT. An asymmetric two electrode cuff for generation of unidirectionally propagated action potentials. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1986;33:541-549.
277. Szlavik RB, de Bruin H. The effect of stimulus current pulse width on nerve fiber size recruitment patterns. Med Eng Phys 1999;21:507-515.
278. Takebe K, Basmajian J. Gait analysis in stroke patients to assess treatments of foot-drop. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1976;10:75-92.
279. Takebe K, Kukulka C, Narayan M, Milner M, Basmajian J. Peroneal nerve stimulator in rehabilitation of hemiplegic patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1975;56:237-240.
280. Targan RS, Alon G, Kay SL. Effect of long-term electrical stimulation on motor recovery and improvement of clinical residuals in patients with unresolved facial nerve palsy. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2000;122:246-252.
281. Taub E, Uswatt G. Constraint-Induced Movement therapy: answers and questions after two decades of research. Neurorehabilitation 2006;21:93-95.
282. Taylor P, Burridge J, Dunkerley A, Wood D, Norton J, Singleton C, et al. Clinical audit of 5 years provision of the Odstock dropped foot stimulator. Artif Organs 1999;23:440-442.
283. Taylor PN, Burridge JH, Dunkerley AL, Wood DE, Norton JA, Singleton C, et al. Clinical use of the Odstock dropped foot stimulator: its effect on the speed and effort of walking. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999;80:1577-1583.
284. Thoma H, Gerner H, Holle J, Kluger P, Mayr W, Meister B, et al. The phrenic pacemaker: substitution of paralyzed functions in tetraplegia. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 1987;33:472-479.
285. Tong KY, Mak AF, Ip WY. Command control for functional electrical stimulation hand grasp systems using miniature accelerometers and gyroscopes. Med Biol Eng Comput 2003;41:710-717.
286. Triolo RJ, Bieri C, Uhlir J, Kobetic R, Schemer A, Marsolais EB. Implanted FNS systems for assisted standing and transfers for individuals with cervical spinal cord injuries. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1996;7:1119-1128.
287. Uhlir JP, Triolo RJ, Kobetic R. The use of selective electrical stimulation of the quadriceps to improve standing function in paraplegia. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 2000;8:514-522.
288. van der Aa HE, Alleman E, Nene A, Snoek G. Sacral anterior root stimulation for bladder control: clinical results. Arch Physiol Biochem 1999;107:248-256.
289. Van Kerrebroeck PE, Koldewijn EL, Debruyne FM. Worldwide experience with the Finetech-Brindley sacral anterior root stimulator. Neurourol Urodyn 1993;12:497-503.
290. Van Kerrebroeck PE, Koldewijn EL, Rosier PF, Wijkstra H, Debruyne FM. Results of the treatment of neurogenic bladder dysfunction in spinal cord injury by sacral posterior root rhizotomy and anterior sacral root stimulation. J Urol 1996;155:1378-1381.
291. Van Kerrebroeck PEV, Kolewijn EL, Wijkstra H, Debruyne FMJ. Urodynamic evaluation before and after intradural posterior sacral rhizotomies and implantation of the Finetech-Brindley anterior sacral root stimulator. Urodinamica 1992;1:7-12.
292. Van Ouwenaller C, Laplace PM, Chantraine A. Painful shoulder in hemiplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1986;67:23-26.
293. Vanderlinden RG, Epstein SW, Hyland RH, Smythe HS, Vanderlinden LD. Management of chronic ventilatory insufficiency with electrical diaphragm pacing. Can J Neuro Sci 1988;15:63-67.
294. Vanderthommen M, Depresseux JC, Dauchat L, Degueldre C, Croisier JL, Crielaard JM. Spatial distribution of blood flow in electrically stimulated human muscle: a positron emission tomography study. Muscle Nerve 2000;23:482-489.
295. Veltink PH, Franken HM, Van Alste JA, Boom HB. Modelling the optimal control of cyclical leg movements induced by functional electrical stimulation. Int J Artif Organs 1992;15:746-755.
296. Vodovnik L, Rebersek S. Information content of myo-control signals for orthotic and prosthetic systems. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1974;55:52-56.
297. Wang RY, Chan RC, Tsai MW. Functional electrical stimulation on chronic and acute hemiplegic shoulder subluxation. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2000;79:385-390.
298. Wang RY, Yang YR, Tsai MW, Wang WT, Chan RC. Effects of functional electric stimulation on upper limb motor function and shoulder range of motion in hemiplegic patients. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2002;81:283-290.
299. Waters R, McNeal D, Perry J. Experimental correction of footdrop by electrical stimulation of the peroneal nerve. J Bone Joint Surg 1975;57A:1047-1054.
300. Waters RL, Campbell JM, Nakai R. Therapeutic electrical stimulation of the lower limb by epimysial electrodes. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1988:44-52.
301. Waters RL, McNeal DR, Faloon W, Clifford B. Functional electrical stimulation of the peroneal nerve for hemiplegia. Long-term clinical follow-up. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1985;67:792-793.
302. Weber DJ, Stein RB, Chan KM, Loeb G, Richmond F, Rolf R, et al. BIONic WalkAide for correcting foot drop. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2005;13:242-246.
303. Weber DJ, Stein RB, Chan KM, Loeb GE, Richmond FJ, Rolf R, et al. Functional electrical stimulation using microstimulators to correct foot drop: a case study. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2004;82:784-792.
304. Wielink G, Essink-Bot ML, van Kerrebroeck PE, Rutten FF. Sacral rhizotomies and electrical bladder stimulation in spinal cord injury. 2. Cost-effectiveness and quality of life analysis. Dutch Study Group on Sacral Anterior Root Stimulation. Eur Urol 1997;31:441-446.
305. Winstein CJ, Miller JP, Blanton S, Taub E, Uswatte G, Morris D, et al. Methods for a multisite randomized trial to investigate the effect of constraint-induced movement therapy in improving upper extremity function among adults recovering from a cerebrovascular stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2003;17:137-152.
306. Wolpaw JR, Birbaumer N, McFarland DJ, Pfurtscheller G, Vaughan TM. Brain-computer interfaces for communication and control. Clin Neurophysiol 2002;113:767-791.
307. Wong AM, Su TY, Tang FT, Cheng PT, Liaw MY. Clinical trial of electrical acupuncture on hemiplegic stroke patients. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1999;78:117-122.
308. Wuolle KS, Bryden AM, Peckham PH, Murray PK, Keith M. Satisfaction with upper-extremity surgery in individuals with tetraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2003;84:1145-1149.
309. Yan T, Hui-Chan CW, Li LS. Functional electrical stimulation improves motor recovery of the lower extremity and walking ability of subjects with first acute stroke: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Stroke 2005;36:80-85.
310. Yarkony GM, Jaeger RJ, Roth E, Kralj A, Quintern J. Functional neuromuscular stimulation for standing after spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1990;71:201-206.
311. Yu DT, Chae J, Walker ME, Kirsteins A, Elovic EP, Flanagan SR, et al. Intramuscular neuromuscular electrical stimulation for post-stroke shoulder pain: a multi-center randomized clinical trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2004;85:695-704.
312. Zebedin E, Sandtner W, Galler S, Szendroedi J, Just H, Todt H, et al. Fiber type conversion alters inactivation of voltage-dependent sodium currents in murine C2C12 skeletal muscle cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2004;287:C270-280.
313. Zicot M, Rigaux P. [Effect of the frequency of neuromuscular electric stimulation of the leg on femoral arterial blood flow]. J Mal Vasc 1995;20:9-13.