Introduction: Cancer control and prevention in the twentieth century

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 81, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 1-38

  Cantor, David ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 34047122028     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2007.0001     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (196)

1. On cancer control in the United States, see Lester Breslow, Daniel Wilner, Larry Agran, et al., A History of Cancer Control in the United States, with Emphasis on the Period 1946-1971, 4 vols., prepared by the History of Cancer Control Project, UCLA School of Public Health, pursuant to Contract no. N01-CN-55172 (Bethesda, Md.: Division of Cancer Control and Rehabilitation, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda; Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Division of Cancer Control and Rehabilitation, 1977);
2. James T. Patterson, The Dread Disease: Cancer and Modern American Culture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987);
3. Barron H. Lerner, The Breast Cancer Wars: Fear, Hope and the Pursuit of a Cure in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003);
4. Kirsten E. Gardner, Early Detection: Women, Cancer, and Awareness Campaigns in the Twentieth-Century United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006). On France, Germany, and Canada,
5. see Patrice Pinell, The Fight against Cancer: France 1890-1940 (London: Routledge, 2002);
6. Robert N. Proctor, The Nazi War on Cancer (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999);
7. Charles Hayter, Element of Hope: Radium and the Response to Cancer in Canada, 1900-1940 (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2005).
8. The term "physician" has different meanings in Britain and the United States. In this essay I reserve the term for discussions of doctors in the United States. When discussing other countries or international events that include the United States, I use the terms "doctors," "medical practitioners," or "practitioners."
9. Andrew C. von Eschenbach, "NCI Sets Goal of Eliminating Suffering and Death Due to Cancer by 2015," J. Nat. Med. Assoc., 2003, 95: 637-39;
10. "NCI Director Sets a Goal: Eliminate Suffering, Death from Cancer by 2015," Cancer Lett., 2003, 29 (7): 1-7.
11. Robert A. Aronowitz, "Do Not Delay: Breast. Cancer and Time, 1900-1970," Milbank Quart., 2001, 79: 355-86.
12. Proctor, Nazi War on Cancer (n. 1).
13. Breslow et al., History of Cancer Control (n. 1);
14. Robert N. Proctor, Cancer Wars: How Politics Shapes What We Know and Don't Know about Cancer (New York: Basic Books, 1995).
15. I am particularly grateful to Ornella Moscucci for discussions about cancer prevention in the United Kingdom. She is working on a history of cancer prevention, and has independently come to a similar argument to the one presented here: Ornella Moscucci, "Preventing Cancer: Problems of Aetiology and Strategy in Early Twentieth Century United Kingdom" (Paper presented to the History of Cancer Conference held at Moulin XII, Ste Gemme Moronval, France, 18-20 October 2006).
16. Breslow et al., History of Cancer Control (n. 1);
17. Proctor, Cancer Wars (n. 6).
18. Breslow et al., History of Cancer Control (n. 1), esp. vol. 1, Introductory Materials, pp. 14-16;
19. Proctor, Cancer Wars (n. 6) ; A New Agenda for Cancer Control Research: Report of the Cancer Control Review Group, National Cancer Institute, Cancer Control Program Review Group, 7 August 1997, NCI archives, Bethesda, Md., DC012878. An online version of the report is available at http://deainfo.nci.nih.gov/ADVISORY/BSA/bsa_program/bsacacntrlmin.htm (accessed 10 July 2006). The separation between prevention and control was implicit in the title of the National Cancer Institute's Division of Cancer Prevention and Control (DCPC), created in 1983. In 1997 the distinction widened when the NCI abolished the DCPC and created two new divisions: the Division of Cancer Control and Population Science under Barbara Rimer, and the Division of Cancer Prevention under Peter Greenwald:
20. "DRCCA Will Become DCPC, Organize into Three Major Program Areas," Cancer Lett., 1982, 8 (38): 4-6;
21. "NCI Splits Prevention and Control Division; Rimer to Direct Division of Cancer Control," ibid., 1997, 23 (29): 1-5.
22. Breslowetal., History of Cancer Control (n. 1);
23. Patterson, Dread Disease (n. 1);
24. Lerner, Breast Cancer Wars (n. 1);
25. Gardner, Early Detection (n. 1).
26. Aronowitz, "Do Not Delay" (n. 4).
27. On efforts to promote breast self-examination in the 1950s, see, e.g., Lerner, Breast Cancer Wars (n. 1), pp. 54-60.
28. For a different approach to alternative medicine, see the account of Canadian responses to alternative medicine in Barbara Clow, Negotiating Disease: Power and Cancer Care, 1900-1910 (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2001), esp. pp. 119-46.
29. Leslie J. Reagan, "Engendering the Dread Disease: Women, Men, and Cancer," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1997, 87: 1779-87.
30. The model of cancer services described here is similar to Daniel M. Fox's model of hierarchical regionalism: see Fox, Health Policies, Health Politics: The British and American Experience, 1911-1965 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986).
31. See, e.g., the results of a Canadian survey of American opinion on cancer-control organization: Hayter, Element of Hope (n. 1), p. 117.
32. For earlier efforts at promoting research, see Victor A. Triolo and Ilse L. Riegel, "The American Association for Cancer Research, 1907-1940: Historical Review," Cancer Res., 1961, 21: 137-67;
33. Hugh J. Creech, "Historical Review of the American Association of Cancer Research, Inc., 1941-1978," ibid., 1979, 39: 1863-90;
34. Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: Standardizing Animals for American Biomedical Research, 1900-1955 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004).
35. For example, American public-education programs informed the public that cancer was not a hereditary disease, at the same time that research organizations supported vast programs of experimental research into cancer genetics and heredity. See David Cantor, "The Frustrations of Families: Henry Lynch, Heredity and Cancer Control, 1962-1975," Med. Hist., 2006, 50: 279-302;
36. on cancer genetic research see Ilana Löwy and Jean-Paul Gaudillière, "Disciplining Cancer: Mice and the Practice of Genetic Purity," in The Invisible Industrialist: Manufactures and the Production of Scientific Knowledge, ed. Jean-Paul Gaudillière and Ilana Löwy (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998), pp. 209-49;
37. Jean-Paul Gaudillière, "Circulating Mice and Viruses: The Jackson Memorial Laboratory, the National Cancer Institute, and the Genetics of Breast Cancer, 1930-1965," in The Practices of Human Genetics, ed. Michael Fortun and Everett Mendelsohn (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1999), pp. 89-124;
38. Gaudillière, "Mendelism and Medicine: Controlling Human Inheritance in Local Contexts, 1920-1960," Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, ser. 3, Sciences de la vie, 2000, 323: 1117-26;
39. Gaudillière, "Making Heredity in Mice and Men: The Production and Uses of Animal Models in Postwar Human Genetics," in Heredity and Infection: The History of Disease Transmission, ed. Gaudillière and Ilana Löwy (London: Routledge, 2001), pp. 181-202;
40. Gaudillière, "Mapping as Technology: Genes, Mutant Mice, and Biomedical Research (1910-1965)," in Classical Genetic Research and Its Legacy: The Mapping Cultures of Twentieth-Century Genetics, ed. Hans-Jörg Rheinberger and Gaudillière (London: Routledge, 2004), pp. 173-203;
41. Rader, Making Mice (n. 17).
42. Breslowetal., History of Cancer Control (n. 1). On the importance of radium therapy to the NCI in the 1930s, see David Cantor, "Radium, Cancer Research, and the End of the New Deal" (paper presented at the "Biomedicine in the Twentieth Century: Practices, Policies, and Politics" conference held at the National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md., 5-6 December 2005).
43. Daniel S. Greenberg, The Polities of Pure Science (New York: New American Library, 1968).
44. Toine Pieters, Interferon: The Science and Selling of a Miracle Drug (London: Routledge, 2005);
45. Sandra Panem, The Interferon Crusade (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1984).
46. See also Ilana Löwy, Between Bench and Bedside: Science, Healing, and Interleukin-2 in a Cancer Ward (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996).
47. Jordan Goodman and Vivien Walsh, The Story of Taxol: Nature and Polities in the Pursuit of an Anti-Cancer Drug (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
48. Similar programs were also instituted in France, Germany, and Canada, emphasizing early detection and treatment. See Pinell, fight against Cancer (n. 1);
49. Proctor, Nazi War on Cancer (n. 1);
50. Hayter, Element of Hope (n. 1).
51. Stephen Snelders, Frans J. Meijman, and Toine Pieters, "Cancer Health Communication in the Netherlands 1910-1950: Paternalism or Popularization?" Medizinhistarisches Journal, 2006, 41: 271-89.
52. See also Ornella Moscucci, "Fast Track to Treatment: Cancer Education in Britain, ca. 1900-1948" (paper presented at the "Patients and Pathways: Cancer Therapies in Historical and Sociological Perspective" conference held at the Centre for the History of Science, Technology and Medicine, University of Manchester, 6-8 October 2005).
53. Snelders, Meijman, and Pieters, "Cancer Health Communication" (n. 24) ; Moscucci, "Fast Track to Treatment" (n. 25).
54. On British medical attitudes toward public emotion, see David Cantor, "Representing 'The Public': Medicine, Charity and Emotion in Twentieth-Century Britain," in Medicine, Health and the Public Sphere in Britain, 1600-2000, ed. Steve Sturdy (London: Routledge, 2002), pp. 145-68.
55. Joan Austoker, A History of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund, 1902-1986 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988).
56. For a comparison of British and American responses to cancerphobia, see James T. Patterson, "Cancer, Cancerphobia, and Culture: Reflections on Attitudes in the United States and Great Britain," Twent. Cent. Brit. Hist., 1991, 2: 137-49.
57. See also Virginia Berridge and Kelly Loughlin, "Smoking and the New Health Education in Britain, 1950s-1970s," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 2005, 95: 956-64.
58. For the significance of radium to French and Canadian cancer services see, respectively, Pinell, Fight against Cancer (n. 1), and Hayter, Element of Hope (n. 1).
59. The exception was that radium in London was purchased and distributed through the King Edward's Hospital Fund. On radium therapy in Britain, see Caroline Murphy, "A History of Radiotherapy to 1950: Cancer and Radiotherapy in Britain 1850-1950" (Ph.D. diss., University of Manchester, 1986); Murphy, "From Friedenheim to Hospice: A Century of Cancer Hospitals," in The Hospital in History, ed. Lindsay Granshaw and Roy Porter (New York: Routledge, 1989), pp. 221-41;
60. David Cantor, "The Definition of Radiobiology: The Medical Research Council's Support for Research into the Biological Effects of Radiation in Britain, 1919-1939" (Ph.D. diss., Lancaster University, 1987);
61. Cantor, "The MRC's Support for Experimental Radiology during the Inter-war Years," in Historical Perspectives on the Role of the MRC: Essays in the History of the Medical Research Council of the United Kingdom and Its Predecessor, the Medical Research Committee, 1913-1953, ed. Joan Austoker and Linda Bryder (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 181-204. For an older account of the Commission,
62. see F. G. Spear and K. Griffiths, The Radium Commission: A Short History of Its Origin and Work, 1929-1948 (London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1951). On the King's Fund,
63. see F. K. Prochaska, Philanthropy and the Hospitals of London: The King's Fund, 1897-1990 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2002), pp. 115-17, 141-42.
64. For an account of radium production and supply, see Edward R. Landa, "The First Nuclear Industry," Sci. Amer., 1982, 247 (5): 180-93.
65. Rosa M. Medina-Domenech and Claudia A. Castanada, "Redefining Cancer during the Inter-War Period: British Medical Officers of Health, State Policy, Managerialism, and Public Health," Amer. J. Pub. Health, in press.
66. Cantor, "MRC's Support for Experimental Radiology" (n. 32).
67. Cantor, "Radium, Cancer Research" (n. 19).
68. Jean-Paul Gaudillière, Inventer la biomédicine: La France, l'Amérique et la production des savoirs du vivant (1945-1965) (Paris: La Découverte, 2002). For a valuable account of cancer research and Cold War politics in the USSR,
69. see Nikolai Krementsov, The Cure: A Story of Cancer and Politics from the Annals of the Cold War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).
70. For a history of cancer research in Britain, see Austoker, History of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund (n. 28).
71. Angela N. H. Creager, "Tracing the Politics of Changing Postwar Research Practices: The Export of 'American' Radioisotopes to European Biologists," Stud. Hist. & Philos. Sci., part C: Biol. & Biomed. Sci., 2002, 33: 367-88;
72. Creager, "The Industrialization of Radioisotopes by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission," in The Science-Industry Nexus: History, Policy, Implications: Nobel Symposium 123, ed. Karl Grandin, Nina Wormbs, and Sven Widmalm (Sagamore Beach, Mass.: Science History Publications/USA, 2004), pp. 143-67. On links between postwar nuclear physics and cancer,
73. see Stuart M. Feffer, "Atoms, Cancer, and Politics: Supporting Atomic Science at the University of Chicago, 1944-1950," Hist. Stud. Phys. & Biol. Sci., 1992, 22: 233-61. On British medical isotopes,
74. see Alison Kraft, "Between Medicine and Industry: Medical Physics and the Rise of the Radioisotope, 1945-65," Contemp. Brit. Hist., 2006, 20: 1-35.
75. R. F. Bud, "Strategy in American Cancer Research after World War II: A Case Study," Soc. Stud. Sci., 1978, 8: 425-59;
76. C. Gordon Zubrod, "Origins and Development of Chemotherapy Research at the National Cancer Institute," Cancer Treat. Rep., 1984, 68: 9-19.
77. Goodman and Walsh, Story of Taxol (n. 22).
78. Keating and Cambrosio's account is part of a broader effort to trace the contours of the cancer clinical trial. See also Peter Keating and Alberto Cambrosio, "Real Compared to What? Diagnosing Leukemias and Lymphomas," in Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry, ed. Margaret Lock, Allan Young, and Alberto Cambrosio (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 103-34;
79. Keating and Cambrosio, "The New Genetics and Cancer: The Contributions of Clinical Medicine in the Era of Biomedicine," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., 2001, 56: 321-52;
80. Keating and Cambrosio, "From Screening to Clinical Research: The Cure of Leukemia and the Early Development of the Cooperative Oncology Groups, 1955-1966," Bull. Hist. Med., 2002, 76: 299-334;
81. Keating and Cambrosio, "Beyond 'Bad News': The Diagnosis, Prognosis and Classification of Lymphomas and Lymphoma Patients in the Era of Biomedicine (1945-1995)," Med. Hist., 2003, 47: 291-312.
82. For a general history of the clinical trial in the United States, see Harry M. Marks, The Progress of Experiment: Science and Therapeutic Reform, in the United States, 1900-1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
83. Lerner, Breast Cancer Wars (n. 1), pp. 93-106.
84. William Nisbet, An Inquiry into the History, Nature, Causes, and Different Modes of Treatment Hitherto Pursued in the Cure of Scrophula and Cancer (Edinburgh: Chapman, 1795), pp. 182-84;
85. Nisbet, An Inquiry into the History, Nature, Causes, and Different Modes of Treatment Hitherto Pursued in the Cure of Scrophula, Pulmonary Consumption, and Cancer to which is Appended an Appendix Containing a Letter to a Celebrated Professor of Edinburgh, 2nd ed. (London: Scott, 1800), pp. 182-84;
86. John O'Connor, "An Inaugural Essay on Carcinoma or Cancer, "submitted to the examination of Charles Alexander Warfield and the Medical Faculty of the College of Maryland on 1st May 1812 for the degree of Doctor of Physic (Baltimore: Edes, 1812), p. 20.
87. For example, see William Hayle Walshe, The Nature and Treatment of Cancer (London: Taylor and Wallon, 1846), pp. 191-92;
88. William Buchan and William Nisbet, The New Domestic. Medicine, or, a Treatise on the Prevention and Cure of Diseases, by Regimen and Simple Medicines. With an Appendix, Containing A Dispensatory for the Use of Private Practitioners. To which is now added, Memoirs of the Life of Dr. Buchan: And Important Extracts from Other Works, Particularly His Advice to Mothers, On the Subject of Their Own Health, and the Means of Promoting the Health, Strength, and Beauty of Their Offspring, etc. (London: Kelly, 1809), pp. 421-26,
89. esp. p. 426. On Buchan and Domestic Medicine,
90. see C. J. Lawrence, "William Buchan: Medicine Laid Open," Med. Hist., 1975, 19: 20-35;
91. Charles E. Rosenberg, "Medical Text and Social Context: Explaining William Buchan's Domestic Medicine," Bull. Hist. Med., 1983, 57: 22-42;
92. Richard B. Sher, "William Buchan's Domestic Medicine: Laying Book History Open," in The Human Face of the Book Trade: Print Culture and Its Creators, ed. Peter Isaac and Barry McKay (Winchester, U.K.: St. Paul's Bibliographies; New Castle, Del.: Oak Knoll Press, 1999), pp. 45-64.
93. For a discussion of cancer as a disease of civilization, see Proctor, Cancer Wars (n. 6), pp. 16-34.
94. On radiation, see Claudia Clark, Radium Girls: Women and Industrial Health Reform, 1910-1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997);
95. Daniel Paul Serwer, The Rise of Radiation Protection: Science, Medicine and Technology in Society, 1896-1935, Informal Report BNL 22279, Brookhaven National Laboratory, 1976. For research on chemicals and cancer and its relationship to irritation theories of cancer causation,
96. see Austoker, History of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund (n. 28), pp. 118-25. More generally on early-to-mid-century environmentalist approaches to environmental and occupational causes of cancer,
97. see Proctor, Cancer Wars (n. 6), pp. 35-53. On asbestos,
98. see Geoffrey Tweedale, with additional research by Philip Hansen, Magic Mineral to Killer Dust: Turner and Newatt and the Asbestos Hazard (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000). On mule spinners' cancer,
99. see T. Wyke, "Mule Spinners' Cancer," in The Barefoot Aristocrats: A History of the Amalgamated Association of Operative Cotton Spinners, ed. A. Fowler and T. Wyke (Littleborough: Kelsall, 1987), pp. 184-96.
100. On transplantation studies see, e.g., C. Moreschi, "Beziehungen zwischen Ernährung und Tumonvachstum," Zeitschrift für Immunitätsforschung. Originale, 1909, 2: 651-75;
101. Peyton Rous, "The Rate of Tumor Growth in Underfed Hosts," Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. & Med., 1910-11, 8: 128-30;
102. Rous, "The Influence of Diet on Transplanted and Spontaneous Mouse Tumors," J. Exp. Med., 1914, 20: 433-51;
103. Eleanor Van Ness Van Alstyne and S. P. Beebe, "Diet Studies in Transplantable Tumors I," J. Med. Res., 1913-14, 29: 217-32;
104. J. E. Sweet, Ellen P. Corson-White, and G. J. Saxon, "The Relation of Diets and of Castration to the Transmissible Tumors of Rats and Mice," J. Biol. Chem., 1913, 15: 181-91;
105. Sweet, Corson-White, and Saxon, "On the Influence of Certain Diets upon the Growth of Experimental Tumors," Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. & Med., 1912-13, 10: 175-76. On declines in meat consumption,
106. see S. Monckton Copeman and Major Greenwood, Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects, no. 36, Diet and Cancer with Special Reference to the Incidence of Cancer upon Members of Certain Religious Orders (London: HMSO, 1926). For discussions of evidence of low cancer rates in "primitive" peoples, and statistical correlations between rising mortality in the West and changes in diet,
107. see Frederick L. Hoffman, Cancer and Diet, with Facts and Observations on Related Subjects (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1937).
108. W. Roger Williams, The Natural History of Cancer with Special Reference to Its Causation and Prevention (London: Heinemann, 1908);
109. Francis Albert Rollo Russell, Preventable Cancer: A Statistical Research (New York: Longmans, Green, 1912);
110. J. Ellis Barker, Cancer: How It Is Caused, How It Can Be Prevented (New York: Dutton, 1924). On how alcohol might cause cancer, see the wonderful illustrations used by John Harvey Kellogg during his lectures: Dr. Kellogg's Temperance Charts: Showing in a Series of Ten Plates the Physical Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco (Battle Creek, Mich.: Health Publishing, 1882); copies available in the National Library of Medicine, NLM Unique ID: 101136438.
111. See, e.g., American Medical Association, Council on Health and Public Instruction, American Society for the Control of Cancer, Prevention of Cancer Series, Pamphlets 1-10 (1915-24). Even Germany with its focus on environmental and social causes of cancer also gave considerable emphasis to early detection and treatment: Proctor, Nazi War on Cancer (n. 1). For an extended review of this book,
112. see David Cantor, "Cancer and the Nazis," Sri. Cult., 2001, .70: 121-33.
113. Clark, Radium Girls (n. 48);
114. Serwer, Rise of Radiation Protection (n. 48);
115. Austoker, History of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund (n. 28), pp. 118-25;
116. Proctor, Cancer Wars (n. 6), pp. 35-53.
117. On the BECC, see Austoker, History of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund (n. 28). On holism and Hippocratism,
118. see Christopher Lawrence and George Weisz, eds., Greater than the Parts: Holism in Biomedicine, 1920-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998) ;
119. David Cantor, ed., Reinventing Hippocrates (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002).
120. Such definitions of prevention can be traced back to at least the mid-nineteenth century and to growing interest in prophylactic surgery. See, e.g., recommendations for circumcision as a preventive for cancer of the penis for individuals belonging to cancerous families: Walshe, Nature and Treatment of Cancer (n. 46), pp. 192-93.
121. For example, the British surgeon W. Sampson Handley, who claimed that a common factor in all cancers was chronic lymph stasis (essentially a general sluggishness of the lymph system), argued that cancer was often caused by dental infection - and secondary infections of the mouth, stomach, and bowel - and urged greater attention to dental hygiene: "Cancer of a dentally clean mouth is a rarity," he claimed (W. Sampson Handley, The Genesis of Cancer [London: Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1931], p. 222).
122. On staging, see Marie Ménoret, "The Genesis of the Notion of Stages in Oncology: The French Permanent Cancer Survey (1943-1952)," Soc. Hist. Mud., 2002, 15: 291-302. On new technologies such as the Pap smear,
123. see Monica J. Casper and Adele E. Clarke, "Making the Pap Smear into the 'Right Tool' for the Job: Cervical Cancer Screening in the USA, circa 1940-95," Soc. Stud. Sci., 1998, 28: 255-90;
124. A. E. Clarke and M.J. Casper, "From Simple Technology to Complex Arena: Classification of Pap Smears, 1917-90," Med. Anthrop. Quart., 1996, 10: 601-23. For work on family histories,
125. see Cantor, "Frustrations of Families" (n. 18);
126. Paolo Palladino, "Between Knowledge and Practice: On Medical Professionals, Patients, and the Making of the Genetics of Cancer," Soc. Stud. Sci., 2002, 22: 137-65.
127. Breslow et al., History of Cancer Control (n. 1).
128. Allan M. Brandt, "Cigarette Risk and American Culture," Daedalus, 1990, 119: 155-76. On the vast historical literature on smoking and cancer,
129. see John C. Burnham, "American Physicians and Tobacco Use: Two Surgeons General, 1929 and 1964," Bull. Hist. Med., 1989, 63: 1-31;
130. John Parascandola, "The Surgeons General and Smoking," Pub. Health Rep., 1997, 112: 440-42;
131. Mark Parascandola, "Cigarettes and the US Public Health Service in the 1950s," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 2001, 91: 196-205;
132. Colin Talley, Howard I. Kushner, and Claire E. Sterk, "Lung Cancer, Chronic Disease Epidemiology, and Medicine, 1948-1964," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., 2004, 59: 329-74;
133. Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes: America's Hundred-Year Cigarette War, the Public Health, and the Unabashed Triumph of Philip Marris (New York: Knopf, 1996);
134. John C. Burnham, Bad Habits: Drinking, Smoking, Taking Drugs, Gambling, Sexual Misbehavior and Swearing in American History (London: New York University Press, 1993);
135. Amy Fairchild and James Cosgrove, "Out of the Ashes: The Life, Death, and Rebirth of the 'Safer' Cigarette in the United States," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 2004, 94: 192-204;
136. Matthew Hilton, Smoking in British Popular Culture, 1800-2000: Perfect Pleasures (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000);
137. Stephen Lock, Lois Reynolds, and E. M. Tansey, eds., Ashes to Ashes: The History of Smoking and Health (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1998);
138. Jon M. Harkness, "The U.S. Public Health Service and Smoking in the 1950s: The Tale of Two More Statements," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., Advance Access published 15 September 2006, doi:10.1093/jhmu/ jrl015. For additional citations, see nn. 59 and 60.
139. Mervyn Susser, "Epidemiology in the United States after World War II: The Evolution of Technique," Epidemiol. Rev., 1985, 7: 147-77, on pp. 150-51;
140. Brandt, "Cigarette Risk" (n. 58), pp. 160-64;
141. William G. Rothstein, Public Health and the Risk Factor: A History of an Uneven Medical Revolution (Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2003), pp. 238-50;
142. Mark Parascandola, "Skepticism, Statistical Methods, and the Cigarette: A Historical Analysis of a Methodological Debate," Perspect. Biol. & Med., 2004, 47: 244-61;
143. Luc Berlivet, '"Association or Causation?' The Debate on the Scientific Status of Risk Factor Epidemiology, 1947-c. 1965," in Making Health Policy: Networks in Research and Policy after 1945, ed. Virginia Berridge (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2005), pp. 39-74;
144. Mark Parascandola, "Epidemiology in Transition: Tobacco and Lung Cancer in the 1950s," in Body Counts: Medical Quantification in Historical and Sociological Perspectives, ed. Gérard Jorland, Annick Opinel, and George Weisz (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2005), pp. 226-48; Harkness, "U.S. Public Health Service and Smoking" (n. 58).
145. Virginia Berridge, "Science and Policy; The Case of Postwar British Smoking Policy," in Lock, Reynolds, and Tansey, Ashes to Ashes (n. 58), pp. 143-63;
146. Berridge, "Passive Smoking and Its Pre-History in Britain: Policy Speaks to Science?" Soc. Sci. & Med., 1999, 49: 1183-95;
147. Berridge, "Post-war Smoking Policy in the UK and the Redefinition of Public Health," Twent. Cent. Brit. Hist., 2003, 14: 61-82;
148. Virginia Berridge and Penny Starns, "The 'Invisible Industrialist' and Public Health: The Rise and Fall of 'Safer Smoking' in the 1970s," in Medicine, the Market and the Mass Media: Producing Health in the Twentieth Century, ed. Virginia Berridge and Kelly Loughlin (London: Routledge, 2005), pp. 172-91. See also Berridge and Loughlin, "Smoking and the New Health Education" (n. 30).
149. "The War on Cancer - Are We Winning It?" first published in Newsday, January 1977;
150. reprinted in Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry, Subcommittee on Nutrition, Nutrition and Cancer Research: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Nutrition of the Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry, United States Senate, Ninety-fifth Congress, Second Session, on Overview of Nutrition Research at the National Institutes of Health with Particular Emphasis on the National Cancer Institute, June 12 and 1.3, 1978 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978), pp. 100-137.
151. Stephen Hilgartner, Science on Stage: Expert Advice as Public Drama (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000) ; David Cantor, "Between Prevention and Therapy: Gio Batta Gori and the National Cancer Institute's Diet, Nutrition and Cancer Program, 1974-1978," unpublished ms.
152. On asbestos, see Tweedale and Hansen, Magic Mineral (n. 48);
153. Jock McCulloch, Asbestos Blues: Labour, Capital, Physicians and the State in South Africa (Oxford: James Currey; Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002) ;
154. Ronald Johnston and Arthur McIvor, Lethal Work: A History of the Asbestos Tragedy in Scotland (East Linton, Scotland: Tuckwell, 2000). For alternative perspectives on industry responses to the health effects of asbestos,
155. see Peter Bartrip, The Way from Dusty Death: Turner and Newall and the Regulation of Occupational Health in the British Asbestos Industry, 1890s-1970 (London: Athlone, 2001);
156. Rachel Maines, Asbestos and Fire: Technological Trade-Offs and the Body at Risk (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2005). On radiation,
157. see J. Samuel Walker, Permissible Dose: A History of Radiation Protection in the Twentieth Century (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000) ;
158. Sarah Dry, "The Population as Patient: Alice Stewart and the Controversy over Low-Level Radiation in the 1950s," in The Risks of Medical Innovation: Risk Perception and Assessment in Historical Context, ed. Thomas Schlich and Ulrich Tröhler (London: Routledge, 2006), pp. 116-32. On drugs,
159. see the complex debates on the relation of the Pill and cancer in Lara V. Marks, Sexual Chemistry: A History of the Contraceptive Pill (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), chap. 7;
160. Elizabeth Siegel Watkins, On the Pill: A Social History of Oral Contraceptives, 1950-1970 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), esp. chap. 4;
161. Jean-Paul Gaudillière, "Hormones at Risk: Cancer and the Medical Uses of Industrially-Produced Sex Steroids in Germany, 1930-1960," in Schlich and Tröhler, Risks of Medical Innovation (n. 63), pp. 148-69. On food hormones such as DES,
162. see Alan I. Marcus, Cancer from Beef: DES, Federal Food Regulation, and Consumer Confidence (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994). On chemicals,
163. see Gerald Markowitz and David Rosner, Deceit and Denial: The Deadly Politics of Industrial Pollution (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press; New York: Milbank Memorial Fund, 2002). On hormone replacement therapy and cancer,
164. see the survey by Nancy Krieger, Ilana Löwy, Robert Aronowitz, et al., "Hormone Replacement Therapy, Cancer, Controversies, and Women's Health: Historical, Epidemiological, Biological, Clinical, and Advocacy Perspectives," J. Epidemiol. & Commun. Health, 2005, 59: 740-48. On the growth of EPA interest in cancer prevention,
165. see Edmund P. Russell III, "Lost among the Parts per Billion: Ecological Protection at the United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1970-1993," Envir. Hist., 1997, 2: 29-51.
166. On the Pap smear, see Casper and Clarke, "Making the Pap Smear" (n. 56); Clarke and Casper, "From Simple Technology" (n. 56). On mammography, see Barron H. Lerner, "To See Today with the Eyes of Tomorrow': A History of Screening Mammography" (Background paper for the Institute of Medicine report, Mammography and Beyond: Developing Technologies for the Early Detection of Breast Cancer, March 2001);
167. Barron H. Lerner, "'To See Today with the Eyes of Tomorrow': A History of Screening Mammography," Can. Bull. Med. Hist., 2003, 20: 299-321;
168. Lerner, Breast Cancer Wars (n. 1), pp. 196-222, 242-50;
169. Gardner, Early Detection (n. 1), pp. 179-86. On cancer genetics,
170. see Shobita Parthasarathy, "Architectures of Genetic Medicine: Comparing Genetic Testing for Breast Cancer in the USA and the UK," Soc. Stud. Sci., 2005, 35: 5-40;
171. Pascale Bourret, "BRCA Patients and Clinical Collectives: New Configurations of Action in Cancer Genetics Practices," ibid., pp. 41-68;
172. Jean-Paul Gaudiliiere and Ilana Löwy, "Science, Markets and Public Health: Contemporary Testing for Breast Cancer Predispostion," in Berridge and Loughlin, Medicine, the Market and the Mass Media (n. 60), pp. 266-88.
173. On women's advocacy in particular, see Lerner, Breast Cancer Wars (n. 1);
174. Gardner, Early Detection (n. 1);
175. Ellen Leopold, A Darker Ribbon: Breast Cancer, Women, and Their Doctors in the Twentieth Century (Boston: Beacon Press, 1999);
176. James S. Oison, Bathsheba's Breast: Women, Cancer, and History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002) ;
177. Amy Sue Bix, "Diseases Chasing Money and Power: Breast Cancer and AIDS Activism Challenging Authority," in Health Care Policy in Contemporary America, ed. Alan I. Marcus and Hamilton Cravens (University Park: Penn State University Press, 1997), pp. 5-32;
178. Maren Klawiter, "Chemicals, Cancer and Prevention: The Synergy of Synthetic Social Movements" in Synthetic Planet: Chemical Politics and the Hazards of Modern Life, ed. Monica J. Casper (New York: Routledge, 2003), pp. 155-75;
179. Klawiter, "Risk, Prevention and the Breast Cancer Continuum: The NCI, the PDA, Health Activism and the Pharmaceutical Industry," Hist. & Technol., 2002, 18: 309-53;
180. Klawiter, "From Private Stigma to Global Assembly: Transforming the Terrain of Breast Cancer," in Global Ethnography: Forces, Connections, and Imaginations in a Postmodern World, ed. Michael Burawoy, Joseph A. Blum, Sheba George, et al. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000), pp. 299-334. On the role of advocacy groups in testing for breast cancer predisposition see Gaudillière and Löwy, "Science, Markets and Public Health" (n. 64).
181. For an example of such an attack on virus research, see Cantor, "Between Prevention and Therapy" (n. 62). On virus research, see Angela N. H. Creager and Jean-Paul Gaudillière, "Experimental Platforms and Technologies of Visualisation: Cancer as Viral Epidemic," in
182. See the citations in n. 63.
183. Proctor, Cancer Wars (n. 6), pp. 75-100.
184. Samuel S. Epstein, "Losing the 'War against Cancer': A Need for Public Policy Reforms," Internat. J. Health Sci., 1992, 22: 455-69.
185. Christopher Sellers, "Discovering Environmental Cancer: Wilhelm Hueper, Post-World War II Epidemiology, and the Vanishing Clinician's Eye," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1997, 87: 1824-35.
186. See also Proctor, Cancer Wars (n. 6), esp. chaps. 3-4. For an example of the debates in the 1980s,
187. see the debate between Richard Peto and Samuel Epstein in Richard Peto, "Distorting the Epidemiology of Cancer: The Need for a More Balanced Overview," Nature, 1980, 284: 297-300;
188. Samuel S. Epstein and Joel B. Swartz, "Fallacies of Lifestyle Cancer Theories," Nature, 1981, 289: 127-30.
189. In 1957 the U.S. Commission on Chronic Illness classified prevention into primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention: primary prevention aimed at the reduction of the incidence of a specific illness; secondary prevention, the reduction of the prevalence of an illness; and tertiary prevention, the reduction of the amount of disability resulting from a specific illness. See U.S. Commission on Chronic Illness, Chronic Illness in the United States, vol. 1: Prevention of Chronic Illness (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1957), pp. 126-43;
190. H. R. Leavell and E. G. Clark, Preventive Medicine for the Doctor in His Community: An Epidemiologic Approach (NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 1965).
191. For example, chemoprevention is sometimes labeled as tertiary prevention, sometimes as having the goal of primary prevention (preventing the occurrence of the disease), sometimes as secondary prevention (early detection and reversion of tumors at a premalignant stage), and sometimes as some combination of the three.
192. Silvio De Flora, Alberto Izzottia, Francesco D'Agostinia, Roumen M. Balanskyb, Douglas Noonanc, and Adriana Albinic, "Multiple Points of Intervention in the Prevention of Cancer and Other Mutation-Related Diseases," Mutat, Res./Fund. & Molec. Mtch. Mutagen., 2001, 480-81: 9-22;
193. "A Comprehensive Approach to Cancer Prevention and Control: A Vision for the Future," in Prevention Strategies That Work (Steps to a Healthier U.S. Initiative, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2003), esp. p. 25;
194. Gail L. Shaw, "Editorial: Cancer Prevention - Perspectives and Implications," Cancer Control J., March/April 1997, 4 (2): https://www.moffitt.usf.edu/pubs/ccj/ (accessed 18 September 2006). On chemoprevention,
195. see Jennifer Fosket, "Constructing 'High-Risk Women': The Development and Standardization of a Breast Cancer Risk Assessment Tool," Sci. Technol. & Hum. Val., 2004, 29: 291-313;
196. Fosket, "Breast Cancer Risk and the Politics of Prevention: Analysis of a Clinical Trial" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, San Francisco, 2002).