Engendering the Dread Disease: Women, Men, and Cancer

American Journal of Public Health

Volumn 87, Issue 11, 1997, Pages 1779-1787

  Reagan, Leslie J ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ATTITUDE TO HEALTH; COMPARATIVE STUDY; FEMALE; GENDER IDENTITY; HEALTH EDUCATION; HISTORY; HUMAN; MALE; METHODOLOGY; NEOPLASM; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SEX DIFFERENCE;

ATTITUDE TO HEALTH; FEMALE; GENDER IDENTITY; HEALTH EDUCATION; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; MALE; NEOPLASMS; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; SEX FACTORS;

EID: 0031278688     PISSN: 00900036     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.87.11.1779     Document Type: Article

References (93)

1. James T. Patterson, The Dread Disease: Cancer and Modern American Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987); Stephen P. Strickland, Politics, Science, and Dread Disease: A Short History of United States Medical Research Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972); Susan Sontag, Illness as Metaphor (New York: Doubleday, 1990). Barbara Clow questions Sontag's description of the attitude toward cancer as one of absolute silence and shame in "Who's Afraid of Susan Sontag? or, The Myths and Metaphors of Cancer Reconsidered" (paper presented at the 69th Annual Meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine, Buffalo, N.Y., May 1996).
2. James T. Patterson, The Dread Disease: Cancer and Modern American Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987); Stephen P. Strickland, Politics, Science, and Dread Disease: A Short History of United States Medical Research Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972); Susan Sontag, Illness as Metaphor (New York: Doubleday, 1990). Barbara Clow questions Sontag's description of the attitude toward cancer as one of absolute silence and shame in "Who's Afraid of Susan Sontag? or, The Myths and Metaphors of Cancer Reconsidered" (paper presented at the 69th Annual Meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine, Buffalo, N.Y., May 1996).
3. James T. Patterson, The Dread Disease: Cancer and Modern American Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987); Stephen P. Strickland, Politics, Science, and Dread Disease: A Short History of United States Medical Research Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972); Susan Sontag, Illness as Metaphor (New York: Doubleday, 1990). Barbara Clow questions Sontag's description of the attitude toward cancer as one of absolute silence and shame in "Who's Afraid of Susan Sontag? or, The Myths and Metaphors of Cancer Reconsidered" (paper presented at the 69th Annual Meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine, Buffalo, N.Y., May 1996).
4. There is a rich history of public health and the campaigns to educate the public, reduce mortality, and eradicate diseases. For a sampling of the literature on the 20th century, see Judith Walzer Leavitt, The Healthiest City: Milwaukee and the Politics of Health Reform (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982); Susan L. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Public Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995); Nancy Tomes, "The Private Side of Public Health: Sanitary Science, Domestic Hygiene, and the Germ Theory, 1870-1900," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 64 (Winter 1990): 509-539; Lynne Elizabeth Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland: Maternal and Child Health Reform in Illinois, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1995); Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Suzanne Poirier, Chicago's War on Syphilis, 1937-1940: The Times, the Trib, and the Clap Doctor (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995); Elizabeth Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra in the South (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972); John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981); Richard Harrison Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association 1904-1954: A Study of the Voluntary Health Movement in the United States (1957; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977). On the media and public health propaganda specifically, see Martin S. Pernick, The Black Stork: Eugenics and the Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures since 1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Martin S. Pernick, "Thomas Edison's Tuberculosis Films: Mass Media and Health Propaganda," Hastings Center Report 8 (June 1978): 21-27; Terra Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988).
5. There is a rich history of public health and the campaigns to educate the public, reduce mortality, and eradicate diseases. For a sampling of the literature on the 20th century, see Judith Walzer Leavitt, The Healthiest City: Milwaukee and the Politics of Health Reform (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982); Susan L. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Public Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995); Nancy Tomes, "The Private Side of Public Health: Sanitary Science, Domestic Hygiene, and the Germ Theory, 1870-1900," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 64 (Winter 1990): 509-539; Lynne Elizabeth Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland: Maternal and Child Health Reform in Illinois, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1995); Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Suzanne Poirier, Chicago's War on Syphilis, 1937-1940: The Times, the Trib, and the Clap Doctor (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995); Elizabeth Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra in the South (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972); John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981); Richard Harrison Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association 1904-1954: A Study of the Voluntary Health Movement in the United States (1957; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977). On the media and public health propaganda specifically, see Martin S. Pernick, The Black Stork: Eugenics and the Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures since 1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Martin S. Pernick, "Thomas Edison's Tuberculosis Films: Mass Media and Health Propaganda," Hastings Center Report 8 (June 1978): 21-27; Terra Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988).
6. There is a rich history of public health and the campaigns to educate the public, reduce mortality, and eradicate diseases. For a sampling of the literature on the 20th century, see Judith Walzer Leavitt, The Healthiest City: Milwaukee and the Politics of Health Reform (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982); Susan L. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Public Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995); Nancy Tomes, "The Private Side of Public Health: Sanitary Science, Domestic Hygiene, and the Germ Theory, 1870-1900," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 64 (Winter 1990): 509-539; Lynne Elizabeth Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland: Maternal and Child Health Reform in Illinois, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1995); Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Suzanne Poirier, Chicago's War on Syphilis, 1937-1940: The Times, the Trib, and the Clap Doctor (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995); Elizabeth Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra in the South (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972); John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981); Richard Harrison Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association 1904-1954: A Study of the Voluntary Health Movement in the United States (1957; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977). On the media and public health propaganda specifically, see Martin S. Pernick, The Black Stork: Eugenics and the Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures since 1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Martin S. Pernick, "Thomas Edison's Tuberculosis Films: Mass Media and Health Propaganda," Hastings Center Report 8 (June 1978): 21-27; Terra Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988).
7. There is a rich history of public health and the campaigns to educate the public, reduce mortality, and eradicate diseases. For a sampling of the literature on the 20th century, see Judith Walzer Leavitt, The Healthiest City: Milwaukee and the Politics of Health Reform (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982); Susan L. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Public Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995); Nancy Tomes, "The Private Side of Public Health: Sanitary Science, Domestic Hygiene, and the Germ Theory, 1870-1900," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 64 (Winter 1990): 509-539; Lynne Elizabeth Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland: Maternal and Child Health Reform in Illinois, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1995); Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Suzanne Poirier, Chicago's War on Syphilis, 1937-1940: The Times, the Trib, and the Clap Doctor (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995); Elizabeth Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra in the South (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972); John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981); Richard Harrison Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association 1904-1954: A Study of the Voluntary Health Movement in the United States (1957; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977). On the media and public health propaganda specifically, see Martin S. Pernick, The Black Stork: Eugenics and the Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures since 1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Martin S. Pernick, "Thomas Edison's Tuberculosis Films: Mass Media and Health Propaganda," Hastings Center Report 8 (June 1978): 21-27; Terra Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988).
8. There is a rich history of public health and the campaigns to educate the public, reduce mortality, and eradicate diseases. For a sampling of the literature on the 20th century, see Judith Walzer Leavitt, The Healthiest City: Milwaukee and the Politics of Health Reform (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982); Susan L. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Public Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995); Nancy Tomes, "The Private Side of Public Health: Sanitary Science, Domestic Hygiene, and the Germ Theory, 1870-1900," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 64 (Winter 1990): 509-539; Lynne Elizabeth Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland: Maternal and Child Health Reform in Illinois, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1995); Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Suzanne Poirier, Chicago's War on Syphilis, 1937-1940: The Times, the Trib, and the Clap Doctor (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995); Elizabeth Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra in the South (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972); John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981); Richard Harrison Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association 1904-1954: A Study of the Voluntary Health Movement in the United States (1957; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977). On the media and public health propaganda specifically, see Martin S. Pernick, The Black Stork: Eugenics and the Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures since 1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Martin S. Pernick, "Thomas Edison's Tuberculosis Films: Mass Media and Health Propaganda," Hastings Center Report 8 (June 1978): 21-27; Terra Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988).
9. There is a rich history of public health and the campaigns to educate the public, reduce mortality, and eradicate diseases. For a sampling of the literature on the 20th century, see Judith Walzer Leavitt, The Healthiest City: Milwaukee and the Politics of Health Reform (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982); Susan L. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Public Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995); Nancy Tomes, "The Private Side of Public Health: Sanitary Science, Domestic Hygiene, and the Germ Theory, 1870-1900," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 64 (Winter 1990): 509-539; Lynne Elizabeth Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland: Maternal and Child Health Reform in Illinois, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1995); Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Suzanne Poirier, Chicago's War on Syphilis, 1937-1940: The Times, the Trib, and the Clap Doctor (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995); Elizabeth Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra in the South (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972); John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981); Richard Harrison Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association 1904-1954: A Study of the Voluntary Health Movement in the United States (1957; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977). On the media and public health propaganda specifically, see Martin S. Pernick, The Black Stork: Eugenics and the Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures since 1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Martin S. Pernick, "Thomas Edison's Tuberculosis Films: Mass Media and Health Propaganda," Hastings Center Report 8 (June 1978): 21-27; Terra Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988).
10. There is a rich history of public health and the campaigns to educate the public, reduce mortality, and eradicate diseases. For a sampling of the literature on the 20th century, see Judith Walzer Leavitt, The Healthiest City: Milwaukee and the Politics of Health Reform (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982); Susan L. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Public Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995); Nancy Tomes, "The Private Side of Public Health: Sanitary Science, Domestic Hygiene, and the Germ Theory, 1870-1900," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 64 (Winter 1990): 509-539; Lynne Elizabeth Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland: Maternal and Child Health Reform in Illinois, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1995); Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Suzanne Poirier, Chicago's War on Syphilis, 1937-1940: The Times, the Trib, and the Clap Doctor (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995); Elizabeth Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra in the South (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972); John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981); Richard Harrison Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association 1904-1954: A Study of the Voluntary Health Movement in the United States (1957; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977). On the media and public health propaganda specifically, see Martin S. Pernick, The Black Stork: Eugenics and the Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures since 1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Martin S. Pernick, "Thomas Edison's Tuberculosis Films: Mass Media and Health Propaganda," Hastings Center Report 8 (June 1978): 21-27; Terra Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988).
11. There is a rich history of public health and the campaigns to educate the public, reduce mortality, and eradicate diseases. For a sampling of the literature on the 20th century, see Judith Walzer Leavitt, The Healthiest City: Milwaukee and the Politics of Health Reform (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982); Susan L. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Public Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995); Nancy Tomes, "The Private Side of Public Health: Sanitary Science, Domestic Hygiene, and the Germ Theory, 1870-1900," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 64 (Winter 1990): 509-539; Lynne Elizabeth Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland: Maternal and Child Health Reform in Illinois, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1995); Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Suzanne Poirier, Chicago's War on Syphilis, 1937-1940: The Times, the Trib, and the Clap Doctor (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995); Elizabeth Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra in the South (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972); John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981); Richard Harrison Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association 1904-1954: A Study of the Voluntary Health Movement in the United States (1957; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977). On the media and public health propaganda specifically, see Martin S. Pernick, The Black Stork: Eugenics and the Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures since 1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Martin S. Pernick, "Thomas Edison's Tuberculosis Films: Mass Media and Health Propaganda," Hastings Center Report 8 (June 1978): 21-27; Terra Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988).
12. There is a rich history of public health and the campaigns to educate the public, reduce mortality, and eradicate diseases. For a sampling of the literature on the 20th century, see Judith Walzer Leavitt, The Healthiest City: Milwaukee and the Politics of Health Reform (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982); Susan L. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Public Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995); Nancy Tomes, "The Private Side of Public Health: Sanitary Science, Domestic Hygiene, and the Germ Theory, 1870-1900," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 64 (Winter 1990): 509-539; Lynne Elizabeth Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland: Maternal and Child Health Reform in Illinois, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1995); Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Suzanne Poirier, Chicago's War on Syphilis, 1937-1940: The Times, the Trib, and the Clap Doctor (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995); Elizabeth Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra in the South (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972); John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981); Richard Harrison Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association 1904-1954: A Study of the Voluntary Health Movement in the United States (1957; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977). On the media and public health propaganda specifically, see Martin S. Pernick, The Black Stork: Eugenics and the Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures since 1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Martin S. Pernick, "Thomas Edison's Tuberculosis Films: Mass Media and Health Propaganda," Hastings Center Report 8 (June 1978): 21-27; Terra Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988).
13. There is a rich history of public health and the campaigns to educate the public, reduce mortality, and eradicate diseases. For a sampling of the literature on the 20th century, see Judith Walzer Leavitt, The Healthiest City: Milwaukee and the Politics of Health Reform (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982); Susan L. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Public Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995); Nancy Tomes, "The Private Side of Public Health: Sanitary Science, Domestic Hygiene, and the Germ Theory, 1870-1900," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 64 (Winter 1990): 509-539; Lynne Elizabeth Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland: Maternal and Child Health Reform in Illinois, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1995); Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Suzanne Poirier, Chicago's War on Syphilis, 1937-1940: The Times, the Trib, and the Clap Doctor (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995); Elizabeth Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra in the South (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972); John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981); Richard Harrison Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association 1904-1954: A Study of the Voluntary Health Movement in the United States (1957; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977). On the media and public health propaganda specifically, see Martin S. Pernick, The Black Stork: Eugenics and the Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures since 1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Martin S. Pernick, "Thomas Edison's Tuberculosis Films: Mass Media and Health Propaganda," Hastings Center Report 8 (June 1978): 21-27; Terra Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988).
14. There is a rich history of public health and the campaigns to educate the public, reduce mortality, and eradicate diseases. For a sampling of the literature on the 20th century, see Judith Walzer Leavitt, The Healthiest City: Milwaukee and the Politics of Health Reform (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982); Susan L. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Public Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995); Nancy Tomes, "The Private Side of Public Health: Sanitary Science, Domestic Hygiene, and the Germ Theory, 1870-1900," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 64 (Winter 1990): 509-539; Lynne Elizabeth Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland: Maternal and Child Health Reform in Illinois, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1995); Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Suzanne Poirier, Chicago's War on Syphilis, 1937-1940: The Times, the Trib, and the Clap Doctor (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995); Elizabeth Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra in the South (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972); John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981); Richard Harrison Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association 1904-1954: A Study of the Voluntary Health Movement in the United States (1957; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977). On the media and public health propaganda specifically, see Martin S. Pernick, The Black Stork: Eugenics and the Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures since 1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Martin S. Pernick, "Thomas Edison's Tuberculosis Films: Mass Media and Health Propaganda," Hastings Center Report 8 (June 1978): 21-27; Terra Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988).
15. There is a rich history of public health and the campaigns to educate the public, reduce mortality, and eradicate diseases. For a sampling of the literature on the 20th century, see Judith Walzer Leavitt, The Healthiest City: Milwaukee and the Politics of Health Reform (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982); Susan L. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Public Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995); Nancy Tomes, "The Private Side of Public Health: Sanitary Science, Domestic Hygiene, and the Germ Theory, 1870-1900," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 64 (Winter 1990): 509-539; Lynne Elizabeth Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland: Maternal and Child Health Reform in Illinois, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1995); Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Suzanne Poirier, Chicago's War on Syphilis, 1937-1940: The Times, the Trib, and the Clap Doctor (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995); Elizabeth Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra in the South (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972); John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981); Richard Harrison Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association 1904-1954: A Study of the Voluntary Health Movement in the United States (1957; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977). On the media and public health propaganda specifically, see Martin S. Pernick, The Black Stork: Eugenics and the Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures since 1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Martin S. Pernick, "Thomas Edison's Tuberculosis Films: Mass Media and Health Propaganda," Hastings Center Report 8 (June 1978): 21-27; Terra Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988).
16. The American Society for the Control of Cancer, formed in 1913, was renamed the American Cancer Society in the mid-1940s; see Patterson, The Dread Disease, 71-74, 172-177. The current essay builds on Patterson's study. Although Patterson looked at the same sources and remarks on women's presence, he did not explicitly analyze the significance of gender in cancer discourse. My study is based on approximately 300 periodical articles identified through the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature, 1890-1965; A Guide to Negro Periodical Literature, 1940-1946; and the Index to Periodical Articles By and About Negroes, 1950-1965.
17. David Plotkin, "Good News and Bad News about Breast Cancer," Atlantic Monthly 277 (June 1996): 53-55; William C. Black, Robert F. Nease, Jr., and Anna N. A. Tosteson, "Perceptions of Breast Cancer Risk and Screening Effectiveness in Women Younger than 50 Years of Age," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 (May 17, 1995): 720-726.
18. David Plotkin, "Good News and Bad News about Breast Cancer," Atlantic Monthly 277 (June 1996): 53-55; William C. Black, Robert F. Nease, Jr., and Anna N. A. Tosteson, "Perceptions of Breast Cancer Risk and Screening Effectiveness in Women Younger than 50 Years of Age," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 (May 17, 1995): 720-726.
19. In this essay, I deliberately use the terms sex and gender. The term sex refers to the physical differentiation between bodies. Gender refers to the social and cultural meanings given to women and men; gender is culturally and historically produced. The two terms are not interchangeable, although they are related. For the moment, I am assuming a biological difference between the sexes, although some argue that even what appears to be the fixed biology of sex has been historically and culturally produced. See Thomas Lacqeur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990). Age and, later, race were also used to categorize cancer risks and mortality rates, but they did not play a prominent role in the popular literature. For an illustration that combined sex, age, and race to show comparative risks, see Clarence Cook Little, Cancer: A Study for Laymen, prepared for the Women's Field Army by the American Society for the Control of Cancer (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1944), 30, Fig. 19, but I have found nothing similar in the popular magazines. Gender was the main means of talking about cancer and educating the public.
20. In this essay, I deliberately use the terms sex and gender. The term sex refers to the physical differentiation between bodies. Gender refers to the social and cultural meanings given to women and men; gender is culturally and historically produced. The two terms are not interchangeable, although they are related. For the moment, I am assuming a biological difference between the sexes, although some argue that even what appears to be the fixed biology of sex has been historically and culturally produced. See Thomas Lacqeur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990). Age and, later, race were also used to categorize cancer risks and mortality rates, but they did not play a prominent role in the popular literature. For an illustration that combined sex, age, and race to show comparative risks, see Clarence Cook Little, Cancer: A Study for Laymen, prepared for the Women's Field Army by the American Society for the Control of Cancer (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1944), 30, Fig. 19, but I have found nothing similar in the popular magazines. Gender was the main means of talking about cancer and educating the public.
21. See contemporary U.S. census and vital statistics data, which are almost always organized by race and sex but rarely by income. For an insightful critique, see Nancy Krieger and Mary Bassett, "The Health of Black Folk: Disease, Class, and Ideology in Science," in The "Racial" Economy of Science: Toward a Democratic Future, ed. Sandra Harding (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993), 161-169.
22. Samuel Hopkins Adams, "What Can We Do About Cancer?" Ladies Home Journal, May 1913, 21-22; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 71-73.
23. Samuel Hopkins Adams, "What Can We Do About Cancer?" Ladies Home Journal, May 1913, 21-22; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 71-73.
24. Francis Carter Wood, "Must Women Die of Cancer?" Woman Citizen 11 (April 1927): 24.
25. This poster used a male figure as the standard human figure; arrows indicated the location of cancer's "danger signals" for men and women. The poster listed six danger signals: "any sore that does not heal"; "persistent hoarseness that lasts longer than two weeks"; "any persistent lump or thickening, especially of the breast"; "persistent indigestion developing suddenly in middle life"; "any irregular bleeding or discharge from any body opening"; and "sudden changes in form or rate of growth in a mole or wart." The poster was included in Maurice B. Judd, "Art Aids the Doctor," Hygeia 17 (February 1939): 135.
26. "Cure" in cancer discourse meant surviving 5 years after discovery of the presence of the disease.
27. "Cancer Army," Time, 22 March 1937, 49-50, 52, 54; Richard Carter, The Gentle Legions (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961), 152-155; Walter S. Ross, Crusade: The Official History of the American Cancer Society (New York: Arbor House, 1987), 30-31, 40. Ross reports that the Women's Field Army was ended in 1951, although the American Cancer Society continued to rely upon women volunteers.
28. "Cancer Army," Time, 22 March 1937, 49-50, 52, 54; Richard Carter, The Gentle Legions (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961), 152-155; Walter S. Ross, Crusade: The Official History of the American Cancer Society (New York: Arbor House, 1987), 30-31, 40. Ross reports that the Women's Field Army was ended in 1951, although the American Cancer Society continued to rely upon women volunteers.
29. "Cancer Army," Time, 22 March 1937, 49-50, 52, 54; Richard Carter, The Gentle Legions (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961), 152-155; Walter S. Ross, Crusade: The Official History of the American Cancer Society (New York: Arbor House, 1987), 30-31, 40. Ross reports that the Women's Field Army was ended in 1951, although the American Cancer Society continued to rely upon women volunteers.
30. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired, 54. In a personal communication, Susan Smith reports that although cancer was not a primary focus of the Black public health movement, it was included in public health efforts and the National Negro Health News covered cancer, especially in the 1940s. For an article in an African-American periodical, see L. Granger, "I Was Cured of Cancer," Ebony, April 1958; 80-84.
31. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired, 54. In a personal communication, Susan Smith reports that although cancer was not a primary focus of the Black public health movement, it was included in public health efforts and the National Negro Health News covered cancer, especially in the 1940s. For an article in an African-American periodical, see L. Granger, "I Was Cured of Cancer," Ebony, April 1958; 80-84.
32. Laura Lane, "Farm Women Take Up Arms against Cancer," Country Gentleman, September 1954, 91. The article did not report on the size of the audiences or their responses, although I hope that further research will uncover information about the effectiveness of and audience response to these outreach projects.
33. "Cancer Army," 49; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 121-123.
34. "Cancer Army," 49; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 121-123.
35. Virginia Gardner, "Vanity, Modesty, and Cancer," Hygeia 11 (April 1933): 302.
36. Physicians were also uncomfortable with the implications of practicing obstetrics; see Virginia G. Drachman, "The Loomis Trial: Social Mores and Obstetrics in the Mid-Nineteenth Century," in Women and Health in America: Historical Readings, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984), 166-174. See illustrations of male physicians performing pelvic examinations without viewing the female genitalia in Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 40-43. Concern about the propriety of male physicians' involvement in obstetrics and gynecology fueled feminist support for women physicians. See Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Mary Poovey, "Scenes of an Indelicate Character: The Medical Treatment of Victorian Women," in Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work of Gender in Mid-Victorian England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 24-50.
37. Physicians were also uncomfortable with the implications of practicing obstetrics; see Virginia G. Drachman, "The Loomis Trial: Social Mores and Obstetrics in the Mid-Nineteenth Century," in Women and Health in America: Historical Readings, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984), 166-174. See illustrations of male physicians performing pelvic examinations without viewing the female genitalia in Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 40-43. Concern about the propriety of male physicians' involvement in obstetrics and gynecology fueled feminist support for women physicians. See Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Mary Poovey, "Scenes of an Indelicate Character: The Medical Treatment of Victorian Women," in Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work of Gender in Mid-Victorian England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 24-50.
38. Physicians were also uncomfortable with the implications of practicing obstetrics; see Virginia G. Drachman, "The Loomis Trial: Social Mores and Obstetrics in the Mid-Nineteenth Century," in Women and Health in America: Historical Readings, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984), 166-174. See illustrations of male physicians performing pelvic examinations without viewing the female genitalia in Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 40-43. Concern about the propriety of male physicians' involvement in obstetrics and gynecology fueled feminist support for women physicians. See Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Mary Poovey, "Scenes of an Indelicate Character: The Medical Treatment of Victorian Women," in Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work of Gender in Mid-Victorian England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 24-50.
39. Physicians were also uncomfortable with the implications of practicing obstetrics; see Virginia G. Drachman, "The Loomis Trial: Social Mores and Obstetrics in the Mid-Nineteenth Century," in Women and Health in America: Historical Readings, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984), 166-174. See illustrations of male physicians performing pelvic examinations without viewing the female genitalia in Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 40-43. Concern about the propriety of male physicians' involvement in obstetrics and gynecology fueled feminist support for women physicians. See Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Mary Poovey, "Scenes of an Indelicate Character: The Medical Treatment of Victorian Women," in Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work of Gender in Mid-Victorian England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 24-50.
40. Although Gardner acknowledged that some women might find it easier to be examined by female physicians, she dismissed women's anxieties about male doctors in the same breath. "Doubtless there should be more women doctors," the author wrote, "but where there are not, women are committing an inexcusable folly if they shy from periodic examinations because of delicacy" (quotation from Gardner, "Vanity, Modesty, and Cancer," 301).
41. Ibid., 300.
42. Ibid., "prudery" on 301, "menace" on 300.
43. On Dr. George N. Papanicolaou, see Clive Howard, "Cancer of the Womb," Woman's Home Companion, October 1947, 32-33, 48, 50, 53; Milton L. Zisowitz, "Conquering Uterine Cancer," American Mercury, June 1949, 647-655.
44. On Dr. George N. Papanicolaou, see Clive Howard, "Cancer of the Womb," Woman's Home Companion, October 1947, 32-33, 48, 50, 53; Milton L. Zisowitz, "Conquering Uterine Cancer," American Mercury, June 1949, 647-655.
45. Clive Howard, "How to Prevent 100,000 Cancer Deaths a Year," Woman's Home Companion, September 1950, 127. For campaigns encouraging screening with the Pap test in Oklahoma, Kansas, and New York in 1947 and Memphis in 1955, see Lois Mattox Miller, "The Small Towns Tackle Cancer," Hygeia, 25 (April 1947): 260-261, 318; Lois Mattox Miller, "Memphis Declares War on a Woman-Killer," Reader's Digest, October 1955, 146-148.
46. Clive Howard, "How to Prevent 100,000 Cancer Deaths a Year," Woman's Home Companion, September 1950, 127. For campaigns encouraging screening with the Pap test in Oklahoma, Kansas, and New York in 1947 and Memphis in 1955, see Lois Mattox Miller, "The Small Towns Tackle Cancer," Hygeia, 25 (April 1947): 260-261, 318; Lois Mattox Miller, "Memphis Declares War on a Woman-Killer," Reader's Digest, October 1955, 146-148.
47. Clive Howard, "How to Prevent 100,000 Cancer Deaths a Year," Woman's Home Companion, September 1950, 127. For campaigns encouraging screening with the Pap test in Oklahoma, Kansas, and New York in 1947 and Memphis in 1955, see Lois Mattox Miller, "The Small Towns Tackle Cancer," Hygeia, 25 (April 1947): 260-261, 318; Lois Mattox Miller, "Memphis Declares War on a Woman-Killer," Reader's Digest, October 1955, 146-148.
48. Howard, "How to Prevent 100,000 Cancer Deaths," 41.
49. Dorothy Dunbar Bromley, "What Do You Do about Cancer?" Woman's Home Companion, August 1948, 7-8 (quotation from p. 8).
50. Ibid., 8; Frances W. Dow, "A New Way to Fight Cancer," Parent's Magazine, April 1949, 90.
51. Ibid., 8; Frances W. Dow, "A New Way to Fight Cancer," Parent's Magazine, April 1949, 90.
52. Howard, "How to Prevent 100,000 Cancer Deaths," 127.
53. "Men Need to Be Cancer Alerted," Science News Letter 61 (31 May 1952): 347.
54. Elizabeth R. Bills, "In My Case It Was Cancer" Saturday Evening Post, 25 October 1952, 45.
55. "Grim but Funny," Life 32 (21 April 1952): 99-102.
56. (This film was available to both schoolchildren and adults. See Illinois Department of Public Health, Health Film Catalog, Including Filmstrips, Slides, Transcriptions, 1969, 14.)
57. Howard, "How to Prevent 100,000 Cancer Deaths," 127.
58. See illustration in Robert D. Johnson, "Self Inspection against Cancer," Today's Health 30 (January 1952): 22-23; "Self-examination for Cancer of the Breast," Ladies Home Journal, August 1952, 84; J. D. Ratcliff, "You Can Fight Cancer in Your Home," Woman's Home Companion, May 1952, 44, 98.
59. See illustration in Robert D. Johnson, "Self Inspection against Cancer," Today's Health 30 (January 1952): 22-23; "Self-examination for Cancer of the Breast," Ladies Home Journal, August 1952, 84; J. D. Ratcliff, "You Can Fight Cancer in Your Home," Woman's Home Companion, May 1952, 44, 98.
60. See illustration in Robert D. Johnson, "Self Inspection against Cancer," Today's Health 30 (January 1952): 22-23; "Self-examination for Cancer of the Breast," Ladies Home Journal, August 1952, 84; J. D. Ratcliff, "You Can Fight Cancer in Your Home," Woman's Home Companion, May 1952, 44, 98.
61. Lawrence Galton, "Lung Cancer among Men," Better Homes and Gardens, October 1953, 64, 305. Through early detection and surgery, Galton promised, "the cure rate for lung cancer can be increased at least tenfold." See also "Chest X-Rays for Men," Science News Letter 63 (28 March 1953): 196. A 1956 McCalls article described the Reade family's physicals: "Mrs. Reade's internal examination had included the painless Papanicolaou vaginal smear test. . . . Her husband's complete examination stressed the lungs, rectum, prostate and stomach - the four most common cancer siles in men." Although Mr. Reade's exam covered each of these areas, the article and photo emphasized the chest x-ray, lung cancer, and surgical removal of the lung. Evan McLeod Wylie, "24 Hours in a Cancer Hospital," McCalls, 5 February 1956, 45.
62. Lawrence Galton, "Lung Cancer among Men," Better Homes and Gardens, October 1953, 64, 305. Through early detection and surgery, Galton promised, "the cure rate for lung cancer can be increased at least tenfold." See also "Chest X-Rays for Men," Science News Letter 63 (28 March 1953): 196. A 1956 McCalls article described the Reade family's physicals: "Mrs. Reade's internal examination had included the painless Papanicolaou vaginal smear test. . . . Her husband's complete examination stressed the lungs, rectum, prostate and stomach - the four most common cancer siles in men." Although Mr. Reade's exam covered each of these areas, the article and photo emphasized the chest x-ray, lung cancer, and surgical removal of the lung. Evan McLeod Wylie, "24 Hours in a Cancer Hospital," McCalls, 5 February 1956, 45.
63. Lawrence Galton, "Lung Cancer among Men," Better Homes and Gardens, October 1953, 64, 305. Through early detection and surgery, Galton promised, "the cure rate for lung cancer can be increased at least tenfold." See also "Chest X-Rays for Men," Science News Letter 63 (28 March 1953): 196. A 1956 McCalls article described the Reade family's physicals: "Mrs. Reade's internal examination had included the painless Papanicolaou vaginal smear test. . . . Her husband's complete examination stressed the lungs, rectum, prostate and stomach - the four most common cancer siles in men." Although Mr. Reade's exam covered each of these areas, the article and photo emphasized the chest x-ray, lung cancer, and surgical removal of the lung. Evan McLeod Wylie, "24 Hours in a Cancer Hospital," McCalls, 5 February 1956, 45.
64. Galton, "Lung Cancer among Men," 302, mentioned the "controversy" over smoking as a possible cause of lung cancer; Patterson, The Dread Disease, chap. 8.
65. Galton, "Lung Cancer among Men," 302, mentioned the "controversy" over smoking as a possible cause of lung cancer; Patterson, The Dread Disease, chap. 8.
66. Collie Small, "Are You Risking Cancer -Because of False Modesty?" Reader's Digest, February 1952, 11-13.
67. Ibid., 12.
68. Robert Turell, "Does False Modesty Threaten Your Life?" Today's Health 40 (November 1962): 84.
69. Wood, "Must Women Die of Cancer?" 24.
70. "Breast Cancer in Relation to Childbearing and Nursing," Science-Supplement 80 (17 September 1934): 8, 9.
71. "Cancer Less Common among Women with Large Families," Science News Letter 35 (14 January 1939): 23.
72. Emerson Day, "Cancer and a Woman's Sex," Reader's Digest, September 1955, 89.
73. Gladys Denny Shultz, "Women Need No Longer Die of Their No. 1 Cancer Foe!" Ladies Home Journal, April 1955, 60-61.
74. "Cancer Contest Winners," Hygeia 19 (January 1941): 66.
75. Molly Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work: Women, Child Welfare, and the State, 1890-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired; Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland."
76. Molly Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work: Women, Child Welfare, and the State, 1890-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired; Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland."
77. These articles always simultaneously raised and denied maternal fears. Mothers needed to recognize the danger signs but not "be frightened or fatalistic about" cancer in children. Lawrence Galton, "Cancer, the Child Killer," Collier's, 15 May 1948, 66.
78. As many of these cancer education articles did, this one suggested that in most cases the doctor would "rule out the possibility of tumor." Steven M. Spencer, "Cancer Kills Children Too," Saturday Evening Post, April 1951, 101; see also Groff Conklin, "Is Cancer a Danger to Your Child?" Woman's Home Companion, March 1950, 34.
79. As many of these cancer education articles did, this one suggested that in most cases the doctor would "rule out the possibility of tumor." Steven M. Spencer, "Cancer Kills Children Too," Saturday Evening Post, April 1951, 101; see also Groff Conklin, "Is Cancer a Danger to Your Child?" Woman's Home Companion, March 1950, 34.
80. Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland"; Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work; Ellen Ross, Love and Toil: Motherhood in Outcast London, 1870-1918 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Jane Lewis, The Politics of Motherhood: Child and Maternal Welfare in England, 1900-1939 (London: Croom Helm, 1980).
81. Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland"; Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work; Ellen Ross, Love and Toil: Motherhood in Outcast London, 1870-1918 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Jane Lewis, The Politics of Motherhood: Child and Maternal Welfare in England, 1900-1939 (London: Croom Helm, 1980).
82. Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland"; Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work; Ellen Ross, Love and Toil: Motherhood in Outcast London, 1870-1918 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Jane Lewis, The Politics of Motherhood: Child and Maternal Welfare in England, 1900-1939 (London: Croom Helm, 1980).
83. Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland"; Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work; Ellen Ross, Love and Toil: Motherhood in Outcast London, 1870-1918 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Jane Lewis, The Politics of Motherhood: Child and Maternal Welfare in England, 1900-1939 (London: Croom Helm, 1980).
84. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994);
85. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994);
86. Judith Walzer Leavitt, "Typhoid Mary": Captive to the Public's Health (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996); Paula A. Treichler, "AIDS, Gender, and Biomedical Discourse: Current Contests for Meaning," in AIDS: The Burdens of History, ed. Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Fox (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 190-266.
87. Judith Walzer Leavitt, "Typhoid Mary": Captive to the Public's Health (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996); Paula A. Treichler, "AIDS, Gender, and Biomedical Discourse: Current Contests for Meaning," in AIDS: The Burdens of History, ed. Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Fox (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 190-266.
88. Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work; Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland"; Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired.
89. Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work; Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland"; Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired.
90. Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work; Curry, "Modern Mothers in the Heartland"; Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired.
91. Cindy Patton, Last Served? Gendering the HIV Pandemic (London: Taylor & Francis, 1994), chaps. 3, 5 (quotation from pp. 104-105).
92. Jane E. Brody, "The Leading Killer of Women: Heart Disease," New York Times, 10 November 1993; Susan C. Sanderson, "Women's Health in the Curriculum: Coming of Age," Academic Physician and Scientist, June/July 1996, 4. In a personal communication, Dr. Dan Bloomfield stated that many women rapidly responded to these reports and are now paying more attention to the possibility of heart disease.
93. Jane E. Brody, "The Leading Killer of Women: Heart Disease," New York Times, 10 November 1993; Susan C. Sanderson, "Women's Health in the Curriculum: Coming of Age," Academic Physician and Scientist, June/July 1996, 4. In a personal communication, Dr. Dan Bloomfield stated that many women rapidly responded to these reports and are now paying more attention to the possibility of heart disease.