Discovering Environmental Cancer: Wilhelm Hueper, Post-World War II Epidemiology, and the Vanishing Clinician's Eye

American Journal of Public Health

Volumn 87, Issue 11, 1997, Pages 1824-1835

  Sellers, Christopher ^a,b  

^a NEW JERSEY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

^b NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ART; ARTICLE; EPIDEMIOLOGY; HISTORY; HUMAN; NEOPLASM; OCCUPATIONAL DISEASE; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; UNITED STATES;

EPIDEMIOLOGY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; NEOPLASMS; OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; PORTRAITS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0031279318     PISSN: 00900036     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.87.11.1824     Document Type: Article

References (154)

1. E. Ward, A. Carpenter, S. Markowitz, D. Roberts, and W. Halperin, "Excess Number of Bladder Cancers in Workers Exposed to Ortho-Toluidine and Aniline," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 83 (1991): 501-506; C. Sellers and S. Markowitz, "The Carcinogenicity of Ortho-Toluidine: A New Conclusion and Its Implications," Regulatory Pharmacology and Toxicology (1991); International Agency for Research on Cancer, "Ortho-Toluidine and Its Hydrochloride," in IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans, vol. 27 (Lyon, France: World Health Organization, 1983), 158.
2. E. Ward, A. Carpenter, S. Markowitz, D. Roberts, and W. Halperin, "Excess Number of Bladder Cancers in Workers Exposed to Ortho-Toluidine and Aniline," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 83 (1991): 501-506; C. Sellers and S. Markowitz, "The Carcinogenicity of Ortho-Toluidine: A New Conclusion and Its Implications," Regulatory Pharmacology and Toxicology (1991); International Agency for Research on Cancer, "Ortho-Toluidine and Its Hydrochloride," in IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans, vol. 27 (Lyon, France: World Health Organization, 1983), 158.
3. E. Ward, A. Carpenter, S. Markowitz, D. Roberts, and W. Halperin, "Excess Number of Bladder Cancers in Workers Exposed to Ortho-Toluidine and Aniline," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 83 (1991): 501-506; C. Sellers and S. Markowitz, "The Carcinogenicity of Ortho-Toluidine: A New Conclusion and Its Implications," Regulatory Pharmacology and Toxicology (1991); International Agency for Research on Cancer, "Ortho-Toluidine and Its Hydrochloride," in IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans, vol. 27 (Lyon, France: World Health Organization, 1983), 158.
4. Earlier studies of workers exposed to orthotoluidine attributed increased rates of bladder cancer primarily to other chemicals: G. G. Rubino et al., "The Carcinogenic Effect of Aromatic Amines: An Epidemiologic Study on the Role of O-Toluidine and 4,4′-Methylene bis (2-Methylaniline) in Inducing Bladder Cancer in Man," Environmental Research 27 (1982): 241-254; M. M. Stasik, "Carcinomas of the Urinary Bladder in a 4-Chloro-o-toluidine Cohort," International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 60 (1988): 21-24.
5. Earlier studies of workers exposed to orthotoluidine attributed increased rates of bladder cancer primarily to other chemicals: G. G. Rubino et al., "The Carcinogenic Effect of Aromatic Amines: An Epidemiologic Study on the Role of O-Toluidine and 4,4′-Methylene bis (2-Methylaniline) in Inducing Bladder Cancer in Man," Environmental Research 27 (1982): 241-254; M. M. Stasik, "Carcinomas of the Urinary Bladder in a 4-Chloro-o-toluidine Cohort," International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 60 (1988): 21-24.
6. David Michaels, "Colorfast Cancer: The Legacy of Corporate Malfeasance in the U.S. Dye Industry," in Toxic Circles: Environmental Hazards from the Workplace into the Community, ed. Helen Sheehan and Richard Wedeen (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1993), 81-112; Robert Proctor, Cancer Wars: How Politics Shapes What We Know and Don't Know about Cancer (New York: Basic Books, 1995); Samuel Epstein, "Evaluation of the National Cancer Programs and Proposed Reforms," American Journal of Industrial Medicine 24 (1993): 109-133.
7. David Michaels, "Colorfast Cancer: The Legacy of Corporate Malfeasance in the U.S. Dye Industry," in Toxic Circles: Environmental Hazards from the Workplace into the Community, ed. Helen Sheehan and Richard Wedeen (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1993), 81-112; Robert Proctor, Cancer Wars: How Politics Shapes What We Know and Don't Know about Cancer (New York: Basic Books, 1995); Samuel Epstein, "Evaluation of the National Cancer Programs and Proposed Reforms," American Journal of Industrial Medicine 24 (1993): 109-133.
8. David Michaels, "Colorfast Cancer: The Legacy of Corporate Malfeasance in the U.S. Dye Industry," in Toxic Circles: Environmental Hazards from the Workplace into the Community, ed. Helen Sheehan and Richard Wedeen (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1993), 81-112; Robert Proctor, Cancer Wars: How Politics Shapes What We Know and Don't Know about Cancer (New York: Basic Books, 1995); Samuel Epstein, "Evaluation of the National Cancer Programs and Proposed Reforms," American Journal of Industrial Medicine 24 (1993): 109-133.
9. Mervyn Susser and Ezra Susser, "Choosing a Future for Epidemiology," American Journal of Public Health 86 (1996): 668-677; Neil Pearce, "Traditional Epidemiology, Modern Epidemiology, and Public Health," American Journal of Public Health 86 (1996): 678-683; also see in this issue Warren Winkelstein, Jr, "Eras, Paradigms, and the Future of Epidemiology," American Journal of Public Health 86 (1996): 621-622.
10. Mervyn Susser and Ezra Susser, "Choosing a Future for Epidemiology," American Journal of Public Health 86 (1996): 668-677; Neil Pearce, "Traditional Epidemiology, Modern Epidemiology, and Public Health," American Journal of Public Health 86 (1996): 678-683; also see in this issue Warren Winkelstein, Jr, "Eras, Paradigms, and the Future of Epidemiology," American Journal of Public Health 86 (1996): 621-622.
11. Mervyn Susser and Ezra Susser, "Choosing a Future for Epidemiology," American Journal of Public Health 86 (1996): 668-677; Neil Pearce, "Traditional Epidemiology, Modern Epidemiology, and Public Health," American Journal of Public Health 86 (1996): 678-683; also see in this issue Warren Winkelstein, Jr, "Eras, Paradigms, and the Future of Epidemiology," American Journal of Public Health 86 (1996): 621-622.
12. Allan Brandt, "The Cigarette, Risk, and American Culture," Daedalus 119 (Fall 1990): 159-161; James Patterson, The Dread Disease: Cancer and American Culture (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1987). Colin White discusses opposition among prominent statisticians but centers his discussion around the new epidemiological studies of smoking themselves in "Research on Smoking and Lung Cancer: A Landmark in the History of Chronic Disease Epidemiology," Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 63 (1990): 29-46.
13. Allan Brandt, "The Cigarette, Risk, and American Culture," Daedalus 119 (Fall 1990): 159-161; James Patterson, The Dread Disease: Cancer and American Culture (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1987). Colin White discusses opposition among prominent statisticians but centers his discussion around the new epidemiological studies of smoking themselves in "Research on Smoking and Lung Cancer: A Landmark in the History of Chronic Disease Epidemiology," Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 63 (1990): 29-46.
14. Allan Brandt, "The Cigarette, Risk, and American Culture," Daedalus 119 (Fall 1990): 159-161; James Patterson, The Dread Disease: Cancer and American Culture (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1987). Colin White discusses opposition among prominent statisticians but centers his discussion around the new epidemiological studies of smoking themselves in "Research on Smoking and Lung Cancer: A Landmark in the History of Chronic Disease Epidemiology," Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 63 (1990): 29-46.
15. Proctor, Cancer Wars, 43-48; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 213-214; Larry Agran, The Cancer Connection: And What We Can Do About It (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), 179-186; but see Michael Shimkin, "In the Middle: 1954-63 - Historical Note," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 62 (1979): 1297-1299.
16. Proctor, Cancer Wars, 43-48; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 213-214; Larry Agran, The Cancer Connection: And What We Can Do About It (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), 179-186; but see Michael Shimkin, "In the Middle: 1954-63 - Historical Note," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 62 (1979): 1297-1299.
17. Proctor, Cancer Wars, 43-48; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 213-214; Larry Agran, The Cancer Connection: And What We Can Do About It (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), 179-186; but see Michael Shimkin, "In the Middle: 1954-63 - Historical Note," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 62 (1979): 1297-1299.
18. Proctor, Cancer Wars, 43-48; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 213-214; Larry Agran, The Cancer Connection: And What We Can Do About It (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), 179-186; but see Michael Shimkin, "In the Middle: 1954-63 - Historical Note," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 62 (1979): 1297-1299.
19. Wilhelm C. Hueper, Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas, 1942).
20. On Hueper's career, see Lester Breslow, ed., A History of Cancer Control in the United States: With Emphasis on the Period 1946-1971 (Los Angeles: UCLA, 1977), 131-158, appendix 9; Agran, The Cancer Connection, 23-29, 171-186; Proctor, Cancer Wars, 36-48; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 187-190, 282-283; Alan I. Marcus, Cancer from Beef: DES, Federal Food Regulation, and Consumer Confidence (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 41, 63; and Wilhelm Hueper, "Adventures of a Physician in Occupational Cancer: A Medical Cassandra's Tale," 1976, in Wilhelm Hueper Papers, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.
21. On Hueper's career, see Lester Breslow, ed., A History of Cancer Control in the United States: With Emphasis on the Period 1946-1971 (Los Angeles: UCLA, 1977), 131-158, appendix 9; Agran, The Cancer Connection, 23-29, 171-186; Proctor, Cancer Wars, 36-48; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 187-190, 282-283; Alan I. Marcus, Cancer from Beef: DES, Federal Food Regulation, and Consumer Confidence (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 41, 63; and Wilhelm Hueper, "Adventures of a Physician in Occupational Cancer: A Medical Cassandra's Tale," 1976, in Wilhelm Hueper Papers, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.
22. On Hueper's career, see Lester Breslow, ed., A History of Cancer Control in the United States: With Emphasis on the Period 1946-1971 (Los Angeles: UCLA, 1977), 131-158, appendix 9; Agran, The Cancer Connection, 23-29, 171-186; Proctor, Cancer Wars, 36-48; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 187-190, 282-283; Alan I. Marcus, Cancer from Beef: DES, Federal Food Regulation, and Consumer Confidence (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 41, 63; and Wilhelm Hueper, "Adventures of a Physician in Occupational Cancer: A Medical Cassandra's Tale," 1976, in Wilhelm Hueper Papers, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.
23. On Hueper's career, see Lester Breslow, ed., A History of Cancer Control in the United States: With Emphasis on the Period 1946-1971 (Los Angeles: UCLA, 1977), 131-158, appendix 9; Agran, The Cancer Connection, 23-29, 171-186; Proctor, Cancer Wars, 36-48; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 187-190, 282-283; Alan I. Marcus, Cancer from Beef: DES, Federal Food Regulation, and Consumer Confidence (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 41, 63; and Wilhelm Hueper, "Adventures of a Physician in Occupational Cancer: A Medical Cassandra's Tale," 1976, in Wilhelm Hueper Papers, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.
24. On Hueper's career, see Lester Breslow, ed., A History of Cancer Control in the United States: With Emphasis on the Period 1946-1971 (Los Angeles: UCLA, 1977), 131-158, appendix 9; Agran, The Cancer Connection, 23-29, 171-186; Proctor, Cancer Wars, 36-48; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 187-190, 282-283; Alan I. Marcus, Cancer from Beef: DES, Federal Food Regulation, and Consumer Confidence (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 41, 63; and Wilhelm Hueper, "Adventures of a Physician in Occupational Cancer: A Medical Cassandra's Tale," 1976, in Wilhelm Hueper Papers, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.
25. On Hueper's career, see Lester Breslow, ed., A History of Cancer Control in the United States: With Emphasis on the Period 1946-1971 (Los Angeles: UCLA, 1977), 131-158, appendix 9; Agran, The Cancer Connection, 23-29, 171-186; Proctor, Cancer Wars, 36-48; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 187-190, 282-283; Alan I. Marcus, Cancer from Beef: DES, Federal Food Regulation, and Consumer Confidence (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 41, 63; and Wilhelm Hueper, "Adventures of a Physician in Occupational Cancer: A Medical Cassandra's Tale," 1976, in Wilhelm Hueper Papers, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.
26. On victim blaming, see Paul R. Marantz, "Blaming the Victim: The Negative Consequences of Preventive Medicine," American Journal of Public Health 80 (1990): 1186-1187.
27. Percival Pott, Chirurgical Observations Relative to the Cataract, the Polypus of the Nose, the Cancer of the Scrotum, the Different Kinds of Ruptures and the Mortification of the Toes and Feet (London: Hawes, Clarke, and Collins, 1775), 63-68; L. Rehn, "Blasengeschwülste bei Fuchsin-Arbeitern," Archiv für Klinische Chirurgie 50 (1895): 588-600. While Pott felt no need to quantify either the sick or the exposed, Rehn, who wrote more than a century later, did.
28. Percival Pott, Chirurgical Observations Relative to the Cataract, the Polypus of the Nose, the Cancer of the Scrotum, the Different Kinds of Ruptures and the Mortification of the Toes and Feet (London: Hawes, Clarke, and Collins, 1775), 63-68; L. Rehn, "Blasengeschwülste bei Fuchsin-Arbeitern," Archiv für Klinische Chirurgie 50 (1895): 588-600. While Pott felt no need to quantify either the sick or the exposed, Rehn, who wrote more than a century later, did.
29. Wilhelm C. Hueper, "Adventures of a Physician," 139-141; W. C. Hueper to Ellice MacDonald, 28 July 1930, in acc. 1034, file 288, DuPont Archives, Hagley Museum and Archives, Wilmington, Del.
30. G. H. Gehrmann, "The Carcinogenetic Agent - Chemistry and Industrial Aspects," Journal of Urology 31 (1934): 127; David A. Hounshell and John Kenly Smith, Jr, Science and Corporate Strategy: Du Pont R&D 1902-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 558-560.
31. G. H. Gehrmann, "The Carcinogenetic Agent - Chemistry and Industrial Aspects," Journal of Urology 31 (1934): 127; David A. Hounshell and John Kenly Smith, Jr, Science and Corporate Strategy: Du Pont R&D 1902-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 558-560.
32. Although Wilmington physician Lang Anderson was careful to note that "[the death rate] from cancer of the bladder as recorded in the United States Registration Area from 1925 to 1929 was 3.20 percent"; Lang W. Anderson, "Incidence, Symptoms and Signs, Results of Survey," Journal of Urology 31 (1934): 150.
33. Christopher Sellers, "The Public Health Service's Office of Industrial Hygiene and the Transformation of Industrial Medicine," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 65 (1991): 42-73.
34. Katsusaburo Yamagiwa and Koichi Ichikawa, "Experimental Study of the Pathogenesis of Cancer," Journal of Cancer Research 3 (1918): 1-29; Ernest Kennaway, "The Identification of a Carcinogenic Compound in Coal-Tar," British Medical Journal, 24 September 1955, 749-752; M. B. Shimkin and V. A. Triolo, "History of Chemical Carcinogenesis: Some Prospective Remarks," Progress in Experimental Tumor Research 11 (1969): 1-20; Folke Henschen, "Yamagiwa's Tar Cancer and Its Historical Significance - From Percival Pott to Katsusaburo Yamagiwa," Gann 59 (1968): 447-451.
35. Katsusaburo Yamagiwa and Koichi Ichikawa, "Experimental Study of the Pathogenesis of Cancer," Journal of Cancer Research 3 (1918): 1-29; Ernest Kennaway, "The Identification of a Carcinogenic Compound in Coal-Tar," British Medical Journal, 24 September 1955, 749-752; M. B. Shimkin and V. A. Triolo, "History of Chemical Carcinogenesis: Some Prospective Remarks," Progress in Experimental Tumor Research 11 (1969): 1-20; Folke Henschen, "Yamagiwa's Tar Cancer and Its Historical Significance - From Percival Pott to Katsusaburo Yamagiwa," Gann 59 (1968): 447-451.
36. Katsusaburo Yamagiwa and Koichi Ichikawa, "Experimental Study of the Pathogenesis of Cancer," Journal of Cancer Research 3 (1918): 1-29; Ernest Kennaway, "The Identification of a Carcinogenic Compound in Coal-Tar," British Medical Journal, 24 September 1955, 749-752; M. B. Shimkin and V. A. Triolo, "History of Chemical Carcinogenesis: Some Prospective Remarks," Progress in Experimental Tumor Research 11 (1969): 1-20; Folke Henschen, "Yamagiwa's Tar Cancer and Its Historical Significance - From Percival Pott to Katsusaburo Yamagiwa," Gann 59 (1968): 447-451.
37. Katsusaburo Yamagiwa and Koichi Ichikawa, "Experimental Study of the Pathogenesis of Cancer," Journal of Cancer Research 3 (1918): 1-29; Ernest Kennaway, "The Identification of a Carcinogenic Compound in Coal-Tar," British Medical Journal, 24 September 1955, 749-752; M. B. Shimkin and V. A. Triolo, "History of Chemical Carcinogenesis: Some Prospective Remarks," Progress in Experimental Tumor Research 11 (1969): 1-20; Folke Henschen, "Yamagiwa's Tar Cancer and Its Historical Significance - From Percival Pott to Katsusaburo Yamagiwa," Gann 59 (1968): 447-451.
38. Wilhelm C. Hueper, Frank Wiley, and Humphrey D. Wolfe, "Experimental Production of Bladder Tumors in Dogs by Administration of Beta-Naphthylamine," Journal of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology 20 (1938): 46-84.
39. See note 11; also see James B. Murphy and Ernest Sturm, "Primary Lung Tumors in Mice following the Cutaneous Application of Coal Tar," Journal of Experimental Medicine 42 (1925): 693-699; C. C. Little and H. J. Bagg, "The Occurrence of Two Heritable Types of Abnormality among the Descendants of X-Rayed Mice," American Journal of Roentgenology 10 (1923): 975-989.
40. See note 11; also see James B. Murphy and Ernest Sturm, "Primary Lung Tumors in Mice following the Cutaneous Application of Coal Tar," Journal of Experimental Medicine 42 (1925): 693-699; C. C. Little and H. J. Bagg, "The Occurrence of Two Heritable Types of Abnormality among the Descendants of X-Rayed Mice," American Journal of Roentgenology 10 (1923): 975-989.
41. The others were X-rays and radioactive material, strong sunlight, and soot and coal tar, all of which Voegtlin characterized as occupation related; Carl Voegtlin, "The Approaches to Cancer Research," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 1 (1940): 12.
42. James Ewing, "The Prevention of Cancer," reprint from The Forum: A Magazine of Controversy, March 1927, 1-11 (quotations on pp. 5, 6, 7); Carl Voegtlin, "A Chemical Attack on Cancer," American Journal of Surgery 22 (1932): 512-514.
43. James Ewing, "The Prevention of Cancer," reprint from The Forum: A Magazine of Controversy, March 1927, 1-11 (quotations on pp. 5, 6, 7); Carl Voegtlin, "A Chemical Attack on Cancer," American Journal of Surgery 22 (1932): 512-514.
44. See the report of the early National Cancer Institute's Committee on Fundamental Research, "Complete Report of Committee, July 20, 1938," 15-16, in "Transcript of Meeting of the National Advisory Cancer Council of the National Cancer Institute, 7/25/38," box 6, Transcripts of Meetings, NACC-NCI, NIH Archives, RG 443, National Archives II, College Park, Md. On the early National Cancer Institute, see Michael Shimkin, "As Memory Serves - An Informal History of the National Cancer Institute, 1937-57," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 59 (suppl) (1977): 559-603; Thelma Dunn, "Intramural Research Pioneers, Personalities, and Programs: The Early Years," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 59 (suppl) (1977): 605-616; and James Patterson, The Dread Disease, 114-136.
45. See the report of the early National Cancer Institute's Committee on Fundamental Research, "Complete Report of Committee, July 20, 1938," 15-16, in "Transcript of Meeting of the National Advisory Cancer Council of the National Cancer Institute, 7/25/38," box 6, Transcripts of Meetings, NACC-NCI, NIH Archives, RG 443, National Archives II, College Park, Md. On the early National Cancer Institute, see Michael Shimkin, "As Memory Serves - An Informal History of the National Cancer Institute, 1937-57," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 59 (suppl) (1977): 559-603; Thelma Dunn, "Intramural Research Pioneers, Personalities, and Programs: The Early Years," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 59 (suppl) (1977): 605-616; and James Patterson, The Dread Disease, 114-136.
46. See the report of the early National Cancer Institute's Committee on Fundamental Research, "Complete Report of Committee, July 20, 1938," 15-16, in "Transcript of Meeting of the National Advisory Cancer Council of the National Cancer Institute, 7/25/38," box 6, Transcripts of Meetings, NACC-NCI, NIH Archives, RG 443, National Archives II, College Park, Md. On the early National Cancer Institute, see Michael Shimkin, "As Memory Serves - An Informal History of the National Cancer Institute, 1937-57," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 59 (suppl) (1977): 559-603; Thelma Dunn, "Intramural Research Pioneers, Personalities, and Programs: The Early Years," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 59 (suppl) (1977): 605-616; and James Patterson, The Dread Disease, 114-136.
47. Frederick Hoffman, The Occupational Incidence of Cancer (Newark, N.J.: Prudential Press, 1931); Morton Levin, "The Epidemiology of Cancer," American Journal of Public Health 34 (1944): 611-620 (quotation on p. 612); "Cancer Reporting in New York State," New York State Journal of Medicine 44 (1944): 880-883.
48. Frederick Hoffman, The Occupational Incidence of Cancer (Newark, N.J.: Prudential Press, 1931); Morton Levin, "The Epidemiology of Cancer," American Journal of Public Health 34 (1944): 611-620 (quotation on p. 612); "Cancer Reporting in New York State," New York State Journal of Medicine 44 (1944): 880-883.
49. Frederick Hoffman, The Occupational Incidence of Cancer (Newark, N.J.: Prudential Press, 1931); Morton Levin, "The Epidemiology of Cancer," American Journal of Public Health 34 (1944): 611-620 (quotation on p. 612); "Cancer Reporting in New York State," New York State Journal of Medicine 44 (1944): 880-883.
50. Hueper, Occupational Tumors, vii, 6 (quotations).
51. Ibid., vii, 11, 12 (quotations).
52. See especially Diane Chapman Walsh, Corporate Physicians: Between Medicine and Management (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987);
53. also see Christopher Sellers, Hazards of the Job: From Industrial Disease to Environmental Health Science (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
54. The sole source for this episode remains Hueper's own "Adventures of a Physician," 156-159.
55. Council of State Governments, Compensation for Occupational Diseases (Chicago: Council of State Governments, 1942).
56. Hueper, Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases, 19.
57. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, Deadly Dust: Silicosis and the Politics of Occupational Disease in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991); Christopher Sellers, Hazards of the Job, chap. 5; Keith Wailoo, "'A Disease sui generis': The Origins of Sickle Cell Anemia and the Emergence of Modern Clinical Research, 1904-1924," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 65 (1992): 185-208.
58. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, Deadly Dust: Silicosis and the Politics of Occupational Disease in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991); Christopher Sellers, Hazards of the Job, chap. 5; Keith Wailoo, "'A Disease sui generis': The Origins of Sickle Cell Anemia and the Emergence of Modern Clinical Research, 1904-1924," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 65 (1992): 185-208.
59. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, Deadly Dust: Silicosis and the Politics of Occupational Disease in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991); Christopher Sellers, Hazards of the Job, chap. 5; Keith Wailoo, "'A Disease sui generis': The Origins of Sickle Cell Anemia and the Emergence of Modern Clinical Research, 1904-1924," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 65 (1992): 185-208.
60. Hueper, Occupational Tumors, 470-471, 475 (examples of taking diagnostic standards for granted) (quotation on p. 471).
61. Ibid., 472 (quotation), 473, 479, 482; when authors disagreed with one another, he could also stress the "uncertainty" of existing knowledge, 481.
62. Other American investigators such as L. U. Gardner of Saranac Laboratories also undertook animal studies of carcinogenicity for clinical ends; see "unpublished data" in Kenneth Lynch, Ford A. McIver, and James Cain, "Pulmonary Tumors in Mice Exposed to Asbestos Dust," AMA Archives of Industrial Health 15 (1957): 207.
63. William Woglom, "Review of W. C. Hueper, Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases," Cancer Research 1 (1942): 668.
64. H. S., "Review of Hueper, Occupational Tumors" American Journal of Medical Sciences 204 (1942): 752; Anon., "Review of Hueper, Occupational Tumors," Journal of the American Medical Association 121 (1943): 297. See also Alan Moritz, "Review of W. C. Hueper, Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases" Journal of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology 24 (1942): 293. See, as well, the exchange between British researcher Ernest Kennaway and Hueper in E. L. Kennaway, "A Contribution to the Mythology of Cancer Research," Lancet 2 (1942): 769-772; W. C. Hueper, "Mythology of Cancer Research: A Reply to Professor Kennaway," Lancet 1 (1943): 538-540, in which Hueper defends himself from Kennaway's accusations that he has cited "inaccurate" and "obsolete" evidence in distortive ways.
65. H. S., "Review of Hueper, Occupational Tumors" American Journal of Medical Sciences 204 (1942): 752; Anon., "Review of Hueper, Occupational Tumors," Journal of the American Medical Association 121 (1943): 297. See also Alan Moritz, "Review of W. C. Hueper, Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases" Journal of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology 24 (1942): 293. See, as well, the exchange between British researcher Ernest Kennaway and Hueper in E. L. Kennaway, "A Contribution to the Mythology of Cancer Research," Lancet 2 (1942): 769-772; W. C. Hueper, "Mythology of Cancer Research: A Reply to Professor Kennaway," Lancet 1 (1943): 538-540, in which Hueper defends himself from Kennaway's accusations that he has cited "inaccurate" and "obsolete" evidence in distortive ways.
66. H. S., "Review of Hueper, Occupational Tumors" American Journal of Medical Sciences 204 (1942): 752; Anon., "Review of Hueper, Occupational Tumors," Journal of the American Medical Association 121 (1943): 297. See also Alan Moritz, "Review of W. C. Hueper, Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases" Journal of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology 24 (1942): 293. See, as well, the exchange between British researcher Ernest Kennaway and Hueper in E. L. Kennaway, "A Contribution to the Mythology of Cancer Research," Lancet 2 (1942): 769-772; W. C. Hueper, "Mythology of Cancer Research: A Reply to Professor Kennaway," Lancet 1 (1943): 538-540, in which Hueper defends himself from Kennaway's accusations that he has cited "inaccurate" and "obsolete" evidence in distortive ways.
67. H. S., "Review of Hueper, Occupational Tumors" American Journal of Medical Sciences 204 (1942): 752; Anon., "Review of Hueper, Occupational Tumors," Journal of the American Medical Association 121 (1943): 297. See also Alan Moritz, "Review of W. C. Hueper, Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases" Journal of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology 24 (1942): 293. See, as well, the exchange between British researcher Ernest Kennaway and Hueper in E. L. Kennaway, "A Contribution to the Mythology of Cancer Research," Lancet 2 (1942): 769-772; W. C. Hueper, "Mythology of Cancer Research: A Reply to Professor Kennaway," Lancet 1 (1943): 538-540, in which Hueper defends himself from Kennaway's accusations that he has cited "inaccurate" and "obsolete" evidence in distortive ways.
68. H. S., "Review of Hueper, Occupational Tumors" American Journal of Medical Sciences 204 (1942): 752; Anon., "Review of Hueper, Occupational Tumors," Journal of the American Medical Association 121 (1943): 297. See also Alan Moritz, "Review of W. C. Hueper, Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases" Journal of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology 24 (1942): 293. See, as well, the exchange between British researcher Ernest Kennaway and Hueper in E. L. Kennaway, "A Contribution to the Mythology of Cancer Research," Lancet 2 (1942): 769-772; W. C. Hueper, "Mythology of Cancer Research: A Reply to Professor Kennaway," Lancet 1 (1943): 538-540, in which Hueper defends himself from Kennaway's accusations that he has cited "inaccurate" and "obsolete" evidence in distortive ways.
69. Levin, "Epidemiology of Cancer," 613.
70. Jonathan Harwood, Styles of Scientific Thought: The German Genetics Community, 1900-1933 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
71. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, "Research or Advocacy: Federal Safety and Occupational Health Policies in the New Deal," in Dying for Work: Workers' Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 83-102; Rosner and Markowitz, Deadly Dust, Sellers, Hazards of the Job, chaps. 5 and 6.
72. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, "Research or Advocacy: Federal Safety and Occupational Health Policies in the New Deal," in Dying for Work: Workers' Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 83-102; Rosner and Markowitz, Deadly Dust, Sellers, Hazards of the Job, chaps. 5 and 6.
73. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, "Research or Advocacy: Federal Safety and Occupational Health Policies in the New Deal," in Dying for Work: Workers' Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 83-102; Rosner and Markowitz, Deadly Dust, Sellers, Hazards of the Job, chaps. 5 and 6.
74. According to Heller, "Bill was a teutonic individual who was usually right about what he said and what he did, but the way he was right was wrong. He had an uncanny facility for abrasiveness"; Breslow, A History of Cancer Control, 139.
75. Thomas Parran, "A Statement Regarding Cancer Activities and Interests," 5, in folder 1850, box 136, Individual Institutes, 1930-1948; Cancer Institute, in NIH Archives, RG 443, National Archives II.
76. Rosemary Stevens, In Sickness and In Wealth: American Hospitals in the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Books, 1989), 259 (statistic); Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982); Daniel Fox, "Health Policy and Changing Epidemiology in the United States: Chronic Disease in the Twentieth Century," in Unnatural Causes: The Three Leading Killer Diseases in America, ed. Russell Maulitz (New Brunswick, N.J., and London: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 11-31.
77. Rosemary Stevens, In Sickness and In Wealth: American Hospitals in the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Books, 1989), 259 (statistic); Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982); Daniel Fox, "Health Policy and Changing Epidemiology in the United States: Chronic Disease in the Twentieth Century," in Unnatural Causes: The Three Leading Killer Diseases in America, ed. Russell Maulitz (New Brunswick, N.J., and London: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 11-31.
78. Rosemary Stevens, In Sickness and In Wealth: American Hospitals in the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Books, 1989), 259 (statistic); Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982); Daniel Fox, "Health Policy and Changing Epidemiology in the United States: Chronic Disease in the Twentieth Century," in Unnatural Causes: The Three Leading Killer Diseases in America, ed. Russell Maulitz (New Brunswick, N.J., and London: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 11-31.
79. Theodore Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995), 202-209; Harry Marks, "Notes from the Underground: The Social Organization of Therapeutic Research," in Russell Maulitz and Diana Long, eds., Grand Rounds: One Hundred Years of Internal Medicine (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), 297-336.
80. Theodore Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995), 202-209; Harry Marks, "Notes from the Underground: The Social Organization of Therapeutic Research," in Russell Maulitz and Diana Long, eds., Grand Rounds: One Hundred Years of Internal Medicine (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), 297-336.
81. Letter of Harry Eagle, scientific director of the National Cancer Institute, to Charles Geschickter, 3 October 1947, under "1973 Cancer (Georgetown Univ. Med. Sch.)" in box 137, E6-Divisions File, 1930-1948, NIH Archives.
82. Jonathan Hartwell, Survey of Compounds Which Have Been Tested for Carcinogenic Activity (Washington, D.C.: Public Health Service, 1951).
83. W. C. Hueper, "Environmental and Occupational Cancer," Public Health Reports 209 (suppl) (1948): 41-42.
84. White, "Research on Smoking," 30-32; Johannes Clemmensen, "Lung Cancer from Smoking: Delays and Attitudes, 1912-1965," American Journal of Industrial Medicine 23 (1993): 941-953.
85. White, "Research on Smoking," 30-32; Johannes Clemmensen, "Lung Cancer from Smoking: Delays and Attitudes, 1912-1965," American Journal of Industrial Medicine 23 (1993): 941-953.
86. A. Bradford Hill, "Observation and Experiment," New England Journal of Medicine 248 (1953): 995;
87. see also Mervyn Susser, "Epidemiology in the United States after World War II: The Evolution of Technique," Epidemiologic Reviews 7 (1985): 147-177.
88. See Abraham M. and David E. Lilienfeld, "A Century of Case-Control Studies: Progress?" in The Case-Control Study: Consensus and Controversy, ed. Michel A. Ibrahim (Oxford New York: Pergamon Press, 1979), 5-13; Haroutune K. Armenian and David E. Lilienfeld, "Overview and Historical Perspective," Epidemiologic Reviews 16 (1994): 1-5.
89. See Abraham M. and David E. Lilienfeld, "A Century of Case-Control Studies: Progress?" in The Case-Control Study: Consensus and Controversy, ed. Michel A. Ibrahim (Oxford New York: Pergamon Press, 1979), 5-13; Haroutune K. Armenian and David E. Lilienfeld, "Overview and Historical Perspective," Epidemiologic Reviews 16 (1994): 1-5.
90. White, "Research on Smoking," 32-40.
91. Especially J. Cornfield, "A Method of Estimating Comparative Rates from Clinical Data: Application to Cancer of the Lung, Breast and Cervix," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 11 (1951): 1269-1275.
92. Philip Cole, "The Evolving Case-Control Study," and Michel A. Ibrahim and Walter O. Spitzer, "The Case-Control Study: The Problem and the Prospect," in The Case-Control Study, 25-34, 139-144.
93. Philip Cole, "The Evolving Case-Control Study," and Michel A. Ibrahim and Walter O. Spitzer, "The Case-Control Study: The Problem and the Prospect," in The Case-Control Study, 25-34, 139-144.
94. Except for certain causal links such as those between cancer and diet; Harland Austin et al., "Limitations in the Application of Case-Control Methodology," Epidemiologic Reviews 16 (1994): 65-76; J. R. Hebert, and D. R. Miller, "Methodologic Considerations for Investigating the Diet-Cancer Link" American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 47 (1988): 1068-1077.
95. Except for certain causal links such as those between cancer and diet; Harland Austin et al., "Limitations in the Application of Case-Control Methodology," Epidemiologic Reviews 16 (1994): 65-76; J. R. Hebert, and D. R. Miller, "Methodologic Considerations for Investigating the Diet-Cancer Link" American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 47 (1988): 1068-1077.
96. Pearce, "Traditional Epidemiology."
97. E. L. Wynder and E. A. Graham, "Etiologic Factors in Bronchogenic Carcinoma with Special Reference to Industrial Exposures: Report of Eight Hundred Fifty-Seven Proven Cases," American Medical Association Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Medicine 4 (1951): 221-235 (quotations on pp. 226, 233, 235).
98. Richard Edwards, Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 163-183; David Gordon, Richard Edwards, and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformation of Labor in the United States (New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
99. Richard Edwards, Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 163-183; David Gordon, Richard Edwards, and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformation of Labor in the United States (New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
100. E. Cuyler Hammond and Daniel Horn, "The Relationship between Human Smoking Habits and Death Rates: A Follow-up Study of 187,766 Men," Journal of the American Medical Association 155 (1954): 1317 (quotation); Richard Doll and A. Bradford Hill, "Lung Cancer and Other Causes of Death in Relation to Smoking: A Second Report on Mortality of British Doctors," British Medical Journal (10 November 1956): 1071-1081.
101. E. Cuyler Hammond and Daniel Horn, "The Relationship between Human Smoking Habits and Death Rates: A Follow-up Study of 187,766 Men," Journal of the American Medical Association 155 (1954): 1317 (quotation); Richard Doll and A. Bradford Hill, "Lung Cancer and Other Causes of Death in Relation to Smoking: A Second Report on Mortality of British Doctors," British Medical Journal (10 November 1956): 1071-1081.
102. Wilhelm Hueper, "A Methodology for Environmental and Occupational Cancer Surveys," Public Health Monograph, no. 1 (1950); Hueper, "Comments on Occupational Cancer Surveys in the United States," Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Medicine 5 (1952): 288-289; Hueper, "State Health Departments Share Responsibility in Occupational Cancer Study," Occupational Health 12 (1952): 204-208; Hueper and T. F. Mancuso, "Studies of Occupational Cancer: Role of State Health Departments," Public Health Reports 67 (1952): 644-649.
103. Wilhelm Hueper, "A Methodology for Environmental and Occupational Cancer Surveys," Public Health Monograph, no. 1 (1950); Hueper, "Comments on Occupational Cancer Surveys in the United States," Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Medicine 5 (1952): 288-289; Hueper, "State Health Departments Share Responsibility in Occupational Cancer Study," Occupational Health 12 (1952): 204-208; Hueper and T. F. Mancuso, "Studies of Occupational Cancer: Role of State Health Departments," Public Health Reports 67 (1952): 644-649.
104. Wilhelm Hueper, "A Methodology for Environmental and Occupational Cancer Surveys," Public Health Monograph, no. 1 (1950); Hueper, "Comments on Occupational Cancer Surveys in the United States," Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Medicine 5 (1952): 288-289; Hueper, "State Health Departments Share Responsibility in Occupational Cancer Study," Occupational Health 12 (1952): 204-208; Hueper and T. F. Mancuso, "Studies of Occupational Cancer: Role of State Health Departments," Public Health Reports 67 (1952): 644-649.
105. Wilhelm Hueper, "A Methodology for Environmental and Occupational Cancer Surveys," Public Health Monograph, no. 1 (1950); Hueper, "Comments on Occupational Cancer Surveys in the United States," Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Medicine 5 (1952): 288-289; Hueper, "State Health Departments Share Responsibility in Occupational Cancer Study," Occupational Health 12 (1952): 204-208; Hueper and T. F. Mancuso, "Studies of Occupational Cancer: Role of State Health Departments," Public Health Reports 67 (1952): 644-649.
106. T. F. Mancuso and Wilhelm C. Hueper, "Occupational Cancer and Other Health Hazards in a Chromate Plant: A Medical Approach," Industrial Medicine and Surgery 20 (1951): 358-363 (quotations on pp. 358 and 363); T. F. Mancuso, "Occupational Cancer Survey in Ohio," Proceedings of American Public Health Cancer Association, October 24, 1949, 56ff.
107. T. F. Mancuso and Wilhelm C. Hueper, "Occupational Cancer and Other Health Hazards in a Chromate Plant: A Medical Approach," Industrial Medicine and Surgery 20 (1951): 358-363 (quotations on pp. 358 and 363); T. F. Mancuso, "Occupational Cancer Survey in Ohio," Proceedings of American Public Health Cancer Association, October 24, 1949, 56ff.
108. Richard Doll, "The Causes of Death among Gas-Workers with Special Reference to Cancer of the Lung," British Journal of Industrial Medicine 9 (1952): 180-185; Doll, "Mortality from Lung Cancer in Asbestos Workers," British Journal of Industrial Medicine 12 (1955): 81-86.
109. Richard Doll, "The Causes of Death among Gas-Workers with Special Reference to Cancer of the Lung," British Journal of Industrial Medicine 9 (1952): 180-185; Doll, "Mortality from Lung Cancer in Asbestos Workers," British Journal of Industrial Medicine 12 (1955): 81-86.
110. Morton Levin, Arthur Kraus, Irving Goldberg, and Paul Gerhardt, "Problems in the Study of Occupational and Smoking in Relation to Lung Cancer," Cancer 8 (1955): 932-963; Lester Breslow, Lemar Hoaglin, Bladys Rasmussen, and Herbert Abrams, "Occupations and Cigarette Smoking as Factors in Lung Cancer," American Journal of Public Health 44 (1954): 173-181.
111. Morton Levin, Arthur Kraus, Irving Goldberg, and Paul Gerhardt, "Problems in the Study of Occupational and Smoking in Relation to Lung Cancer," Cancer 8 (1955): 932-963; Lester Breslow, Lemar Hoaglin, Bladys Rasmussen, and Herbert Abrams, "Occupations and Cigarette Smoking as Factors in Lung Cancer," American Journal of Public Health 44 (1954): 173-181.
112. Susser and Susser, "Choosing a Future for Epidemiology," 672.
113. Hueper, "Recent Developments in Environmental Cancer," A.M.A. Archives of Pathology 58 (1954): 673-676. Through this pair of arguments, Hueper tapped into an old medical argument against statistics; see Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 142-145; George Canguilhem, On the Normal and the Pathological, trans. C. R. Fawcett (Boston: Dordrecht, 1978), 29-45; William Coleman, "Neither Empiricism nor Probability: The Experimental Approach," in Michael Heidelberger, Lorenz Kruger, and Rosemarie Rheinwald, eds., Probability since 1800: Interdisciplinary Studies of Scientific Development, Report 25 (Bielefeld, B. Kleine Verlag, 1983): 275-286.
114. Hueper, "Recent Developments in Environmental Cancer," A.M.A. Archives of Pathology 58 (1954): 673-676. Through this pair of arguments, Hueper tapped into an old medical argument against statistics; see Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 142-145; George Canguilhem, On the Normal and the Pathological, trans. C. R. Fawcett (Boston: Dordrecht, 1978), 29-45; William Coleman, "Neither Empiricism nor Probability: The Experimental Approach," in Michael Heidelberger, Lorenz Kruger, and Rosemarie Rheinwald, eds., Probability since 1800: Interdisciplinary Studies of Scientific Development, Report 25 (Bielefeld, B. Kleine Verlag, 1983): 275-286.
115. Hueper, "Recent Developments in Environmental Cancer," A.M.A. Archives of Pathology 58 (1954): 673-676. Through this pair of arguments, Hueper tapped into an old medical argument against statistics; see Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 142-145; George Canguilhem, On the Normal and the Pathological, trans. C. R. Fawcett (Boston: Dordrecht, 1978), 29-45; William Coleman, "Neither Empiricism nor Probability: The Experimental Approach," in Michael Heidelberger, Lorenz Kruger, and Rosemarie Rheinwald, eds., Probability since 1800: Interdisciplinary Studies of Scientific Development, Report 25 (Bielefeld, B. Kleine Verlag, 1983): 275-286.
116. Hueper, "Recent Developments in Environmental Cancer," A.M.A. Archives of Pathology 58 (1954): 673-676. Through this pair of arguments, Hueper tapped into an old medical argument against statistics; see Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 142-145; George Canguilhem, On the Normal and the Pathological, trans. C. R. Fawcett (Boston: Dordrecht, 1978), 29-45; William Coleman, "Neither Empiricism nor Probability: The Experimental Approach," in Michael Heidelberger, Lorenz Kruger, and Rosemarie Rheinwald, eds., Probability since 1800: Interdisciplinary Studies of Scientific Development, Report 25 (Bielefeld, B. Kleine Verlag, 1983): 275-286.
117. Susser and Susser, "Choosing a Future for Epidemiology"; Pearce, "Traditional Epidemiology."
118. Susser and Susser, "Choosing a Future for Epidemiology"; Pearce, "Traditional Epidemiology."
119. Michael Shimkin, "In the Middle," 1298. Allan Brandt ("The Cigarette, Risk, and American Culture," 160-161) and, to some extent, Colin White ("Research on Smoking and Lung Cancer") also present the work of the epidemiologists and smoking researchers as a successful movement toward a more probabilistic approach to cause.
120. Michael Shimkin, "In the Middle," 1298. Allan Brandt ("The Cigarette, Risk, and American Culture," 160-161) and, to some extent, Colin White ("Research on Smoking and Lung Cancer") also present the work of the epidemiologists and smoking researchers as a successful movement toward a more probabilistic approach to cause.
121. Sander Greenland, ed., Evolution of Epidemiologic Ideas: Annotated Readings on Concepts and Methods (Chestnut Hill, Mass.: Epidemiology Resources, Inc, 1987).
122. Richard Doll and Richard Peto, The Causes of Cancer (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981).
123. Hueper, "Adventures of a Physician," 176-177.
124. Ibid., 184.
125. Ibid., 182-183, 184.
126. Hueper, "Recent Developments in Environmental Cancer," 672, 673.
127. Wilhelm Hueper, "Role of Occupational and Environmental Air Pollutants in Production of Respiratory Cancers," A.M.A. Archives of Pathology 63 (1957): 445.
128. R. A. M. Case et al., "Tumours of the Urinary Bladder in Workmen Engaged in the Manufacture and Use of Certain Dyestuff Intermediates in the British Chemical Industry; Part 1. The Role of Aniline, Benzidine, Alpha-Naphthylamine, and Beta-Naphthylamine," British Journal of Industrial Medicine 11 (1954): 75-104; Irving J. Selikoff, Jacob Churg, and E. Cuyler Hammond, "Asbestos Exposure and Neoplasia," Journal of the American Medical Association 188 (1964): 142-146.
129. R. A. M. Case et al., "Tumours of the Urinary Bladder in Workmen
130. W. C. Hueper, "Medicolegal Aspects of Cancer," American Journal of Clinical Pathology 25(1955): 124.
131. W. C. Hueper, "The Potential Role of Non-Nutritive Food Additives and Contaminants as Environmental Carcinogens," Acta: Unio Internationale Contra Cancrum 13 (1957): 220-249.
132. W. C. Hueper, "Environmental Cancer Hazards: A Problem of Community Health," Southern Medical Journal 50 (1957): 923-933.
133. W. C. Hueper, "Environmental Cancer of the Lung," Acta: Unio Internationale Contra Cancrum 13 (1957): 131; Hueper, "Neure Erfahrungen auf dem Gebiete des Berufskrebses und des umweltbedingten Krebses," Münchener Medizinische Wochenschrift 100 (1958): 1167-1173, 1195-1197, 1216-1219.
134. W. C. Hueper, "Environmental Cancer of the Lung," Acta: Unio Internationale Contra Cancrum 13 (1957): 131; Hueper, "Neure Erfahrungen auf dem Gebiete des Berufskrebses und des umweltbedingten Krebses," Münchener Medizinische Wochenschrift 100 (1958): 1167-1173, 1195-1197, 1216-1219.
135. See also Hueper, "Medicolegal Aspects of Cancer," in Medicolegal Problems for Lawyers, ed. Marchall Houts (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas, 1958), 121-149; Hueper, "Medicolegal Considerations of Occupational and Nonoccupational Environmental Cancers," in C. J. Frankel et al., Lawyers' Medical Cyclopedia (Indianapolis: Allen Smith Company, 1960), 558-663; "Adventures of a Physician," 207ff. On his political role and influence, see Proctor, Cancer Wars; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 282-283; and, through a different lens, Marcus, Cancer from Beef, 62-63; and Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), for example, 50-51, 239-243.
136. See also Hueper, "Medicolegal Aspects of Cancer," in Medicolegal Problems for Lawyers, ed. Marchall Houts (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas, 1958), 121-149; Hueper, "Medicolegal Considerations of Occupational and Nonoccupational Environmental Cancers," in C. J. Frankel et al., Lawyers' Medical Cyclopedia (Indianapolis: Allen Smith Company, 1960), 558-663; "Adventures of a Physician," 207ff. On his political role and influence, see Proctor, Cancer Wars; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 282-283; and, through a different lens, Marcus, Cancer from Beef, 62-63; and Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), for example, 50-51, 239-243.
137. See also Hueper, "Medicolegal Aspects of Cancer," in Medicolegal Problems for Lawyers, ed. Marchall Houts (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas, 1958), 121-149; Hueper, "Medicolegal Considerations of Occupational and Nonoccupational Environmental Cancers," in C. J. Frankel et al., Lawyers' Medical Cyclopedia (Indianapolis: Allen Smith Company, 1960), 558-663; "Adventures of a Physician," 207ff. On his political role and influence, see Proctor, Cancer Wars; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 282-283; and, through a different lens, Marcus, Cancer from Beef, 62-63; and Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), for example, 50-51, 239-243.
138. See also Hueper, "Medicolegal Aspects of Cancer," in Medicolegal Problems for Lawyers, ed. Marchall Houts (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas, 1958), 121-149; Hueper, "Medicolegal Considerations of Occupational and Nonoccupational Environmental Cancers," in C. J. Frankel et al., Lawyers' Medical Cyclopedia (Indianapolis: Allen Smith Company, 1960), 558-663; "Adventures of a Physician," 207ff. On his political role and influence, see Proctor, Cancer Wars; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 282-283; and, through a different lens, Marcus, Cancer from Beef, 62-63; and Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), for example, 50-51, 239-243.
139. See also Hueper, "Medicolegal Aspects of Cancer," in Medicolegal Problems for Lawyers, ed. Marchall Houts (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas, 1958), 121-149; Hueper, "Medicolegal Considerations of Occupational and Nonoccupational Environmental Cancers," in C. J. Frankel et al., Lawyers' Medical Cyclopedia (Indianapolis: Allen Smith Company, 1960), 558-663; "Adventures of a Physician," 207ff. On his political role and influence, see Proctor, Cancer Wars; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 282-283; and, through a different lens, Marcus, Cancer from Beef, 62-63; and Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), for example, 50-51, 239-243.
140. See also Hueper, "Medicolegal Aspects of Cancer," in Medicolegal Problems for Lawyers, ed. Marchall Houts (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas, 1958), 121-149; Hueper, "Medicolegal Considerations of Occupational and Nonoccupational Environmental Cancers," in C. J. Frankel et al., Lawyers' Medical Cyclopedia (Indianapolis: Allen Smith Company, 1960), 558-663; "Adventures of a Physician," 207ff. On his political role and influence, see Proctor, Cancer Wars; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 282-283; and, through a different lens, Marcus, Cancer from Beef, 62-63; and Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), for example, 50-51, 239-243.
141. See also Hueper, "Medicolegal Aspects of Cancer," in Medicolegal Problems for Lawyers, ed. Marchall Houts (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas, 1958), 121-149; Hueper, "Medicolegal Considerations of Occupational and Nonoccupational Environmental Cancers," in C. J. Frankel et al., Lawyers' Medical Cyclopedia (Indianapolis: Allen Smith Company, 1960), 558-663; "Adventures of a Physician," 207ff. On his political role and influence, see Proctor, Cancer Wars; Patterson, The Dread Disease, 282-283; and, through a different lens, Marcus, Cancer from Beef, 62-63; and Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), for example, 50-51, 239-243.
142. Hueper, "Adventures of a Physician," 183-184.
143. Compare Thomas Andreoli et al., eds., Cecil Essentials of Medicine (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1986), esp. 166-167, 408-409; Eugene Braunwald et al., eds., Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1987), esp. 425; Russell Cecil, ed., A Textbook of Medicine by American Authors, 5th ed. (Philadelphia and London: W. B. Saunders Company, 1940), 755, 861-863, 884, 958-959; T. R. Harrison, ed., Principles of Internal Medicine (Philadelphia and Toronto: The Blakiston Company, 1950), 285-289.
144. Compare Thomas Andreoli et al., eds., Cecil Essentials of Medicine (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1986), esp. 166-167, 408-409; Eugene Braunwald et al., eds., Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1987), esp. 425; Russell Cecil, ed., A Textbook of Medicine by American Authors, 5th ed. (Philadelphia and London: W. B. Saunders Company, 1940), 755, 861-863, 884, 958-959; T. R. Harrison, ed., Principles of Internal Medicine (Philadelphia and Toronto: The Blakiston Company, 1950), 285-289.
145. Compare Thomas Andreoli et al., eds., Cecil Essentials of Medicine (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1986), esp. 166-167, 408-409; Eugene Braunwald et al., eds., Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1987), esp. 425; Russell Cecil, ed., A Textbook of Medicine by American Authors, 5th ed. (Philadelphia and London: W. B. Saunders Company, 1940), 755, 861-863, 884, 958-959; T. R. Harrison, ed., Principles of Internal Medicine (Philadelphia and Toronto: The Blakiston Company, 1950), 285-289.
146. Compare Thomas Andreoli et al., eds., Cecil Essentials of Medicine (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1986), esp. 166-167, 408-409; Eugene Braunwald et al., eds., Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1987), esp. 425; Russell Cecil, ed., A Textbook of Medicine by American Authors, 5th ed. (Philadelphia and London: W. B. Saunders Company, 1940), 755, 861-863, 884, 958-959; T. R. Harrison, ed., Principles of Internal Medicine (Philadelphia and Toronto: The Blakiston Company, 1950), 285-289.
147. Robert M. Chamberlain et al., "Cancer Prevention in United States Medical Schools: Cancer Education Survey II," Journal of Cancer Education 7 (1992): 108.
148. Rosner and Markowitz, Deadly Dust, 194-196.
149. Doll and Peto, The Causes of Cancer; Stephen Hilgartner, "The Dominant View of Popularization: Conceptual Problems, Political Uses," Social Studies of Science 20 (1990): 519-539.
150. Doll and Peto, The Causes of Cancer; Stephen Hilgartner, "The Dominant View of Popularization: Conceptual Problems, Political Uses," Social Studies of Science 20 (1990): 519-539.
151. Ross C. Brownson et al., "Cancer Control Knowledge and Priorities among Primary Care Physicians," Journal of Cancer Education 8 (1993): 37; Martha Balshem, Cancer in the Community: Class and Medical Authority (Washington, D.C., and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993), esp. 102-105.
152. Ross C. Brownson et al., "Cancer Control Knowledge and Priorities among Primary Care Physicians," Journal of Cancer Education 8 (1993): 37; Martha Balshem, Cancer in the Community: Class and Medical Authority (Washington, D.C., and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993), esp. 102-105.
153. William J. Nicholson, "Quantitative Estimates of Cancer in the Workplace," American Journal of Industrial Medicine 5 (1984): 341-342.
154. Johannes Clemmensen, "Lung Cancer from Smoking," 949.