Rates of suicide among males increase steadily from age 11 to 21: Developmental framework and outline for prevention

Aggression and Violent Behavior

Volumn 12, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 193-207

  Conner, Kenneth R ^a   Goldston, David B ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b DUKE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Adolescence; Aggression; Depression; Substance abuse; Suicide

Indexed keywords

AGGRESSION; ALERTNESS; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; DEPRESSION; DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; FATALITY; GROUPS BY AGE; HUMAN; MENTAL DISEASE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; SUICIDE;

EID: 33847073091     PISSN: 13591789     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.avb.2006.07.002     Document Type: Review

References (137)

1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. (Fourth Ed). (1994), Author, Washington, D.C.
2. Appleby L., Cooper J., Amos T., and Faragher B. Psychological autopsy study of suicides by people aged under 35. British Journal of Psychiatry 175 (1999) 168-174
3. Armstrong T.D., and Costello E.J. Community studies on adolescent substance use, abuse, or dependence and psychiatric comorbidity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 70 (2002) 1224-1239
4. Arnett J.J. Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist 55 (2000) 469-480
5. Azrael D., Miller M., and Hemenway D. Are household firearms stored safely? It depends on whom you ask. Pediatrics 106 (2000) E31
6. Azrin N.H., Donohue B., Besalel V.A., Kogan E.S., and Acierno R. Youth drug abuse treatment: A controlled outcome study. Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse 3 (1994) 1-16
7. Beautrais A.L., Joyce P.R., and Mulder R.T. Risk factors for serious suicide attempts among youths aged 13 through 24 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 35 (1996) 1174-1182
8. Beyers J.M., and Loeber R. Untangling developmental relations between depressed mood and delinquency in male adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 31 (2003) 247-266
9. Boardman A.P., Grimbaldeston A.H., Handley C., Jones P.W., and Willmott S. The North Staffordshire suicide study: A case-control study of suicide in one health district. Psychological Medicine 29 (1999) 27-33
10. Brent D.A., Baugher M., Birmaher B., Kolko D.J., and Bridge J. Compliance with recommendations to remove firearms in families participating in a clinical trial for adolescent depression. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 39 (2000) 1220-1226
11. Brent D.A., Baugher M., Bridge J., Chen T., and Chiappetta L. Age-and sex-related risk factors for adolescent suicide. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38 (1999) 1497-1505
12. Brent D.A., Johnson B.A., Perper J.A., Conolly J., Bridge J., Bartle S., et al. Personality disorder, personality traits, impulsive violence, and completed suicide in adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 33 (1994) 1080-1086
13. Brent D.A., Perper J.A., Allman C.J., Moritz G.M., Wartella M.E., and Zelenak J.P. The presence and accessibility of firearms in the homes of adolescent suicides. JAMA 266 (1991) 2989-2995
14. Brent D.A., Perper J.A., Moritz G., Allman C., Friend A., Roth C., et al. Psychiatric risk factors for adolescent suicide: A case-control study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 32 (1993) 521-529
15. Brent D.A., Perper J.A., Moritz G., Baugher M., Roth C., Balach L., et al. Stressful life events, psychopathology, and adolescent suicide: A case control study. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 23 (1993) 179-187
16. Brook J., Balka E., and Whiteman M. The risk for late adolescence of early marijuana use. American Journal of Public Health 89 (1999) 1549-1554
17. Brown G.W. Life events and measurement. In: Brown G.W., and Harris T.O. (Eds). Life events and illness (1999), Guilford, New York 3-48
18. Brown S.A., Inaba R.K., Gillin J.C., Schuckit M.A., Stewart M.A., and Irwin M.R. Alcoholism and affective disorder: Clinical course and depressive symptoms. American Journal of Psychiatry 152 (1995) 45-52
19. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2005). Criminal Offender Statistics. U.S. Department of Justice [On-line]. Available: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/crimoff.htm#prevalence
20. Capaldi D.M., and Stoolmiller M. Co-occurrence of conduct problems and depressive symptoms in early adolescent boys: III. Prediction to young-adult adjustment. Development and Psychopathology 11 (1999) 59-84
21. Caspi A., Sugden K., Moffitt T.E., Taylor A., Craig I.W., Harrington H., et al. Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science 301 (2003) 386-389
22. Cauffman E. A statewide screening of mental health symptoms among juvenile offenders in detention. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 43 (2004) 430-439
23. Cavanagh J.T.O., Carson A.J., Sharpe M., and Lawrie S.M. Psychological autopsy studies of suicide: A systematic review. Psychological Medicine 33 (2003) 395-405
24. Cherpitel C.J., Borges G.L.G., and Wilcox H.C. Acute alcohol use and suicidal behavior: A review of the literature. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research 28 (2004) 18S-28S
25. Cicchetti D., and Rogosch F.A. Psychopathology as risk for adolescent substance use disorders: A developmental psychopathology perspective. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 28 (1999) 355-365
26. Cicchetti D., and Rogosch F.A. A developmental psychopathology perspective on adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 70 (2002) 6-20
27. Conner K.R. A call for research on planned vs. unplanned suicidal behavior. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 34 (2004) 89-98
28. Conner K.R., Beautrais A.L., and Conwell Y. Risk factors for suicide and medically serious suicide attempts among alcoholics: Analyses of Canterbury Suicide Project Data. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 64 (2003) 551-554
29. Conner K.R., Duberstein P.R., and Conwell Y. Age-related patterns of factors associated with completed suicide in men with alcohol dependence. American Journal on Addictions 8 (1999) 312-318
30. Conner K.R., Meldrum S., Wieczorek W.F., Duberstein P.R., and Welte J.W. The association of irritability and impulsivity with suicidal ideation among 15 to 20-year-old males. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 34 (2004) 363-373
31. Cornelius J.R., Salloum I.M., Day N.L., Thase M.E., and Mann J.J. Patterns of suicidality and alcohol use in alcoholics with major depression. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research 20 (1996) 1451-1455
32. Costello E.J., Egger H.L., and Angold A. The developmental epidemiology of anxiety disorders: Phenomenology, prevalence, and comorbidity. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 14 (2005) 631-648
33. Costello E.J., Mustillo S., Erkanli A., Keeler G., and Angold A. Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry 60 (2003) 837-844
34. Cox J.F., and Morschauser P.C. A solution to the problem of jail suicide. Crisis 18 (1997) 178-184
35. Daniel, S., Walsh, A., Goldston, D., Arnold, E., Reboussin, B. A., Wood, F., in press. Suicidality, school drop-out, and reading problems among adolescents. Journal of Learning Disabilities.
36. Davidson K.M., and Ritson E.B. The relationship between alcohol dependence and depression. Alcohol and Alcoholism 28 (1993) 147-155
37. Deas D., Randall C.L., Roberts J.S., and Anton R.F. A double-blind placebo controlled trial of sertraline in depressed adolescent alcoholics: A pilot study. Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental 15 (2000) 461-469
38. Duberstein P.R., Conwell Y., and Caine E.D. Interpersonal stressors, substance abuse, and suicide. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 181 (1993) 80-85
39. Elman I., Karlsgodt K.H., Gastfriend D.R., Chabris C.F., and Breiter H.C. Cocaine-primed craving and its relationship to depressive symptomatology in individuals with cocaine dependence. Journal of Psychopharmacology 16 (2002) 163-167
40. Esposito-Smythers C., and Spirito A. Adolescent substance use and suicidal behavior: A review with implications for treatment research. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research 28 (2004) 77S-88S (Suppl)
41. Farrington D.P., Gallagher B., Morley L., Ledger R.J., and West D.J. Unemployment, school leaving and crime. British Journal of Criminology 26 (1986) 335-356
42. Fergusson D.M., and Horwood L.J. Early onset cannabis use and psychosocial adjustment in young adults. Addiction 92 (1997) 279-296
43. Fergusson D.M., Swain-Campbell N.R., and Horwood L.J. Deviant peer affiliations, crime and substance use: A fixed effects regression analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 30 (2002) 419-430
44. Fergusson D.M., and Woodward L.J. Mental health, educational, and social role outcomes of adolescents with depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 59 (2002) 225-231
45. Fleischmann A., Beautrais A., Bertolote J.M., and Belfer M. Completed suicide and psychiatric diagnoses in young people: A critical examination of the evidence. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 75 (2005) 676-683
46. Fraley R.C., and Davis K.E. Attachment formation and transfer in young adults' close friendships and romantic relationships. Personal Relationships 4 (1997) 131-144
47. Goldston D.B. Conceptual issues in understanding the relationship between suicidal behavior and substance use during adolescence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 76 (2004) S79-S92 (Suppl)
48. Gould M.S., Fisher P., Parides M., Flory M., and Shaffer D. Psychosocial risk factors of child and adolescent completed suicide. Archives of General Psychiatry 53 (1996) 1155-1162
49. Gould M.S., and Kramer R.A. Youth suicide prevention. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 31 (2001) 6-31 (Supplement)
50. Gray D., Achilles J., Keller T., Tate D., Haggard L., Rolfs R., et al. Utah Youth Suicide Study, Phase 1: Government agency contact before death. Journal of the Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 41 (2002) 427-434
51. Grossman D.C., Mueller B.A., Riedy C., Dowd M.D., Villaveces A., Prodzinski J., et al. Gun storage practices and risk of youth suicide and unintentional firearm injuries. JAMA 293 (2005) 707-714
52. Grossman D.C., Reay D.T., and Baker S.A. Self-inflicted and unintentional firearm injuries among children and adolescents: The source of the firearm. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 153 (1999) 875-878
53. Hawton K., Houston K., and Shepperd R. Suicide in young people: Study of 174 cases, aged under 25 years, based on coroners' and medical records. Journal of Affective Disorders 63 (2001) 159-170
54. Hayes L.M. National study of jail suicides: Seven years later. Psychiatric Quarterly 60 (1989) 7-29
55. Hayes L.M. Juvenile suicide in confinement: A national survey (2004), National Center on Institutions and Alternatives, Mansfield, MA
56. Hazan C., and Zeifman D. Pair bonds as attachments: Evaluating the evidence. In: Cassidy J., and Shaver P.R. (Eds). Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (1999), Guilford, New York 336-354
57. Heikkinen M.E., Aro H.M., Henriksson M.M., Isometsä E.T., Sarna S.J., Kuoppasalmi K.I., et al. Differences in recent life events between alcoholic and depressive nonalcoholic suicides. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research 18 (1994) 1143-1149
58. Heikkinen M.E., Aro H.M., and Lönnqvist J.K. Recent life events and their role in suicide as seen by their spouses. Acta Pscyhiatrica Scandinavica 86 (1992) 489-494
59. Helmus T.C., Downey K.K., Wang L.M., Rhodes G.L., and Schuster C.R. The relationship between self-reported cocaine withdrawal symptoms and history of depression. Addictive Behaviors 26 (2001) 461-467
60. Ialongo N., McCreary B.K., Pearson J.L., Koenig A.L., Wagner B.M., Schmidt N.B., et al. Suicidal behavior among urban, African American young adults. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 32 (2002) 256-271
61. Institute of Medicine. Reducing suicide: A national imperative (2002), The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C.
62. Joiner T. Why people die by suicide (2005), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
63. Joiner T., Steer R.A., Brown G., Beck A.T., Pettit J.W., and Rudd M.D. Worst-point suicidal plans: A dimension of suicidality predictive of past suicide attempts and eventual death by suicide. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003) 1469-1480
64. Kandel D.B., Davies M., Karus D., and Yamaguchi K. The consequences in young adulthood of adolescent drug involvement. Archives of General Psychiatry 43 (1986) 746-754
65. Kashani J.H., Carlson G.A., Beck N.C., Hooper E.W., Cocoran C.M., McAllister H.A., et al. Depression, depressive symptoms, and depressed mood among a community sample of adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry 144 (1987) 931-934
66. Kellerman A.L., Rivara F.P., Somes G., Reay D.T., Francisco J., Banton J.G., et al. Suicide in the home in relation to gun ownership. New England Journal of Medicine 327 (1992) 467-472
67. Kendler K.S., Hettema J.M., Butera F., Gardner C.O., and Prescott C.A. Life event dimensions of loss, humiliation, entrapment, and danger in the prediction of onsets of major depression and generalized anxiety. Archives of General Psychiatry 60 (2003) 789-796
68. Kendler K.S., and Karkowski-Shuman L. Stressful life events and genetic liability to major depression: Genetic control of exposure to the environment?. Psychological Medicine 27 (1997) 539-547
69. Kessler R.C., Berglund P., Demler O., Jin R., Koretz D., Merikangas K.R., et al. The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). JAMA 289 (2003) 3095-3105
70. Kessler R.C., and Walters E.E. Epidemiology of DSM-III-R major depression and minor depression among adolescents and young adults in the National Comorbidity Survey. Depression and Anxiety 7 (1998) 3-14
71. Kim-Cohen J., Caspi A., Moffitt T.E., Harrington H., Milne B.J., and Poulton R. Prior juvenile diagnoses in adults with mental disorder: Developmental follow-back of a prospective-longitudinal cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry 60 (2003) 709-717
72. Knox K.L., Conwell Y., and Caine E.D. If suicide is a public health problem, what are we doing to prevent it?. American Journal of Public Health 94 (2004) 37-45
73. Knox K.L., Litts D.A., Talcott G.W., Feig J.C., and Caine E.D. Risk of suicide and related adverse outcomes after exposure to a suicide prevention programme in the US Air Force: Cohort study. BMJ (2003) 327
74. Kovacs M., and Goldston D. Cognitive and social cognitive development of depressed children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 30 (1991) 388-392
75. Krueger R.F., Caspi A., Moffitt T.E., and Silva P.A. The structure and stability of common mental disorders (DSM-III-R): A longitudinal-epidemiological study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 107 (1998) 216-227
76. Krueger R.F., Hicks B.M., Patrick C.J., Carlson S.R., Iacono W.G., and McGue M. Etiologic connections among substance dependence, antisocial behavior, and personality: Modeling the externalizing spectrum. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 111 (2002) 411-424
77. Kruesi M.J., Grossman J., Pennington J.M., Woodward P.J., Duda D., and Hirsch J.G. Suicide and violence prevention: Parent education in the emergency department. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38 (1999) 250-255
78. Kuperman S., Schlosser S.S., Kramer J.R., Bucholz K., Hesselbrock V., Reich T., et al. Developmental sequence from disruptive behavior diagnosis to adolescent alcohol dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry 158 (2001) 2022-2026
79. Lahey B.B., Miller T.I., Gordon R.A., and Riley A.W. Developmental epidemiology of the disruptive behavior disorders. In: Quay H.C., and Hogan A.E. (Eds). Handbook of disruptive disorders (1999), Plenum, New York 23-48
80. Leckman J.F., Sholomskas D., Thompson D., Belanger A., and Weissman M.M. Best estimate of lifetime psychiatric diagnosis. Archives of General Psychiatry 39 (1982) 879-883
81. Leonard K.E., and Rothbard J.C. Alcohol and the marriage effect. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, Suppl No. 13 (1999) 139-146
82. Lesage A.D., Boyer R., Grunberg F., Vanier C., Morisette R., Ménard-Buteau C., et al. Suicide and mental disorders: A case-control study of young men. American Journal of Psychiatry 151 (1994) 1063-1068
83. Lewinsohn P.M., Pettit J.W., Joiner T.E., and Seeley J.R. The symptomatic expression of major depressive disorder in adolescents and young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112 (2003) 244-252
84. Lewinsohn P.M., Rohde P., Seeley J.R., Klein D.N., and Gotlib L.H. Natural course of adolescent major depressive disorder in a community sample: Predictors of recurrence in young adults. American Journal of Psychiatry 157 (2000) 1584-1591
85. Lewis R.A., Piercy F.P., Sprenkle D.H., and Trepper T.S. Family-based interventions for helping drug-abusing adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research 5 (1990) 82-95
86. Loeber R., and Hay D. Key issues in the development of aggression and violence from childhood to early adulthood. Annual Review of Psychology 48 (1997) 371-410
87. Ludwig J., and Cook P.J. Homicide and suicide rates associated with implementation of the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act. JAMA 284 (2000) 585-591
88. Lynsky M., and Hall W. The effects of adolescent cannabis use on educational attainment: A review. Addiction 95 (2005) 1621-1630
89. Maguire K., and Pastore A.L. Sourcebook of criminal justice statistics, 1998 (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCJ 176356) (1999), U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
90. Mann J.J., Apter A., Bertolote J., Beaturais A., Currier D., Haas A., et al. Suicide prevention strategies: A systematic review. JAMA 294 (2005) 2064-2074
91. Maris R.W. A developmental perspective of suicide. In: Leenars A.A. (Ed). Life span perspectives of suicide: Time-lines in the suicide process (1991), Plenum, New York 25-38
92. Masten A.S., Hubbard J.J., Gest S.D., Tellegen A., Garmezy N., and Ramirez M. Competence in the context of adversity: Pathways to resilience and maladaptation from childhood to adolescence. Development and Psychopathology 11 (1999) 143-169
93. Mayfield D.G., and Montgomery D. Alcoholism, alcohol intoxication, and suicide attempts. Archives of General Psychiatry 27 (1972) 349-353
94. McGee R., Feehan M., Williams S., and Anderson J. DSM-III disorders from age 11 to 15 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 31 (1992) 50-59
95. Memory J. Juvenile suicides in secure detention facilities: Correction of published rates. Death Studies 13 (1989) 455-463
96. Merikangas K.R. Vulnerability factors for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 14 (2005) 649-679
97. Meyers R.J., and Smith J.E. Clinical guide to alcohol treatment: The community reinforcement approach (1995), Guilford, New York
98. Miller M., Azrael D., and Hemenway D. Household firearm ownership and suicide rates in the United States. Epidemiology 13 (2002) 517-524
99. Monti P.M., Colby S.M., Barnett N.P., Spirito A., Rohsenow D.J., Myers M., et al. Brief interventions for harm reduction with alcohol positive older adolescents in the hospital emergency department. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 67 (1999) 989-994
100. Murphy G.E., and Robins E. Social factors in suicide. JAMA 199 (1967) 81-86
101. Murphy G.E., Wetzel R.D., Robins E., and McEvory L. Multiple risk factors predict suicide in alcoholism. Archives of General Psychiatry 49 (1992) 459-463
102. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. (2005a). Leading Causes of Death in the U.S. WISQARS Fatal Injuries [On-line]. Available: http://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/leadcaus10.html
103. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. (2005b). Mortality Reports. WISQARS Fatal Injuries [On-line]. Available: http://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/mortrate.html
104. Nock M.K., and Marzuk P.M. Suicide and violence. In: Hawton K., and van Heeringen K. (Eds). The international handbook of suicide and attempted suicide (2000), Wiley, London 437-456
105. Pickles A., and Angold A. Natural categories or fundamental dimensions: On carving nature at the joints and the rearticulation of psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology 15 (2003) 529-551
106. Puig-Antich J., Lukena E., Davies M., Goetz D., Brennan-Quattrock J., and Todak G. Psychosocial functioning in prepubertal major depressive disorders: II. Interpersonal relationships after sustained recovery from affective episode. Archives of General Psychiatry 42 (1985) 511-517
107. Rapoport J.L., Inoff-Germain G., Weissman M.M., Greenwald S., Narrow W.E., Jensen P.S., et al. Childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder in the NIMH MECA study: Parent versus child identification of cases. Methods for the Epidemiology of Child and Adolescent Mental Disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 14 (2000) 535-548
108. Reifman A., and Windle M. Adolescent suicidal behaviors as a function of depression, hopelessness, and alcohol use and social support: A longitudinal investigation. American Journal of Community Psychology 23 (1995) 329-343
109. Renaud J., Brent D.A., Birmaher B., Chiappetta L., and Bridge J. Suicide in adolescents with disruptive disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38 (1999) 846-851
110. Rohde P., Lewinsohn P., and Seeley J. Are adolescents changed by an episode of major depression?. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 33 (1994) 1289-1298
111. Rothman K.J., and Greenland S. Causation and causal inference. In: Rothman K.J., and Greenland S. (Eds). Modern epidemiology (1998), Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia 7-28
112. Rudd D.M., Joiner T., and Rajab M. Help negation after acute suicidal crisis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 63 (1995) 499-503
113. Rudolph K., Hammen C., and Burge D. Interpersonal functioning and depressive symptoms in childhood: Addressing the issues of specificity and comorbidity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 22 (1994) 355-371
114. Rudolph K.D., Hammen C., Burge D., Lindberg N., Herzberg D., and Daley S.E. Toward an interpersonal life-stress model of depression: The developmental context of stress generation. Development and Psychopathology 12 (2000) 215-234
115. Sareen J., Cox B.J., Afifi T.O., de Graaf R., Asmundson G.J., Ten Have M., et al. Anxiety disorders and risk for suicidal ideation and attempts: A population-based longitudinal study of adults. Archives of General Psychiatry 62 (2005) 1249-1257
116. Schuckit M.A. The clinical implications of primary diagnostic groups among alcoholics. Archives of General Psychiatry 42 (1985) 1043-1049
117. Schuster M.A., Franke T.M., Bastian A.M., Sor S., and Halfon N. Firearm storage patterns in U.S. homes with children. American Journal of Public Health 90 (2000) 588-594
118. Shaffer D., Gould M.S., Fisher L.A., Trautman P., Moreau D., Kleinman M., et al. Psychiatric diagnosis in child and adolescent suicide. Archives of General Psychiatry 53 (1996) 339-348
119. Shaffer D., Scott M., Wilcox H., Maslow C., Hicks R., Lucas C.P., et al. The Columbia Suicide Screen: Validity and reliability of a screen for youth suicide and depression. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 43 (2004) 71-79
120. Shafii M., Carrigan S., Whittinghill J.R., and Derrick A. Psychological autopsy of completed suicide. American Journal of Psychiatry 142 (1985) 1061-1064
121. Shafii M., Steltz-Lenarsky J., Derrick A.M., Beckner C., and Whittinghill J.R. Comorbidity of mental disorders in the post-mortem diagnosis of completed suicide in children and adolescents. Journal of Affective Disorders 15 (1988) 227-233
122. Shenassa E.D., Catlin S.N., and Buka S.L. Lethality of firearms relative to other methods: A population based study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 57 (2003) 120-124
123. Sher K.J., and Gotham H.J. Pathological alcohol involvement: A developmental disorder of young adulthood. Development and Psychopathology 11 (1999) 933-956
124. Silberg J., Rutter M., D'Onofrio B., and Eaves L. Genetic and environmental risk factors in adolescent substance use. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 44 (2003) 664-676
125. Simon T.R., Swann A.C., Powell K.E., Potter L.B., Kresnow M., and O'Carroll P.W. Characteristics of impulsive suicide attempts and attempters. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 32 (2001) 49-59
126. Stanger C., Achenbach T.M., and Verhulst F.C. Accelerated longitudinal comparisons of aggressive versus delinquent syndromes. Development and Psychopathology 9 (1997) 43-58
127. Tarter R.E. Etiology of adolescent substance use: A developmental perspective. American Journal on Addictions 11 (2002) 171-191
128. Thompson E., Eggert L., Randell B., and Pike K. Evaluation of indicated suicide risk prevention approaches for potential high school dropouts. American Journal of Public Health 91 (2001) 742-752
129. Trautman P., Stewart N., and Morishima A. Are adolescent suicide attempters noncompliant with outpatient care?. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 32 (1993) 89-94
130. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Youth violence: A report of the Surgeon General (2005), Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, D.C.
131. U.S.Public Health Service. National strategy for suicide prevention: Goals and objectives for action Washington, D.C (2001)
132. Wagner F.O., and Anthony J.C. From first drug use to drug dependence: Developmental periods of risk for dependence upon marijuana, cocaine, and alcohol. Neuropsychopharmacology 26 (2002) 479-488
133. Webster D.W., Vernick J.S., Zeoli A.M., and Manganello J.A. Association between youth-focused firearm laws and youth suicides. JAMA 292 (2004) 594-601
134. Welte J.W., Barnes G.M., Hoffman J.H., Wieczorek W.F., and Zhang L. Substance involvement and the trajectory of criminal offending in young males. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 31 (2005) 267-284
135. Windle M. Suicidal behaviors and alcohol use among adolescents: A developmental psychopathology perspective. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research 28 (2004) 29S-37S (Suppl)
136. Windle M., and Davies P.T. Developmental theory and research. In: Leonard K.E., and Blane H.T. (Eds). Psychological theories of drinking and alcoholism. Second Ed. (1999), Guilford, New York 164-202
137. Zimmermann P., Wittchen H.U., Hofler M., Pfister H., Kessler R.C., and Lieb R. Primary anxiety disorders and the development of subsequent alcohol use disorders: A 4-year community study of adolescents and young adults. Psychological Medicine 33 (2003) 1211-1222