Peripheral arterial disease: diagnosis, treatment, and systemic implications

Clinics in Dermatology

Volumn 25, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 93-100

  Federman, Daniel G ^a,b   Kravetz, Jeffrey D ^a,b  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b VA CONNECTICUT HEALTHCARE SYSTEM   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; BERAPROST; CILOSTAZOL; CLOPIDOGREL; DEFIBROTIDE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; ILOPROST; NAFTIDROFURYL; PHOSPHODIESTERASE III INHIBITOR; PICOTAMIDE; PROPIONYLCARNITINE; PROSTAGLANDIN E1; RAMIPRIL;

ANKLE BRACHIAL INDEX; ARTERY DISEASE; ARTICLE; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BRACHYTHERAPY; CARDIOVASCULAR SYMPTOM; CLAUDICATION; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; DIABETES MELLITUS; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INTERMITTENT CLAUDICATION; KINESIOTHERAPY; LEG ULCER; MAGNETIC RESONANCE ANGIOGRAPHY; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SMOKING CESSATION;

HUMANS; PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASES; SKIN ULCER;

EID: 33846646936     PISSN: 0738081X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2006.09.006     Document Type: Article

References (82)

1. Levy P.J. Epidemiology and pathophysiology of peripheral arterial disease. Clin Cornerstone 4 (2002) 1-15
2. Selvin E., and Erlinger T.P. Prevalence and risk factors for peripheral arterial disease in the United States: results from the National Health and Examination Survey, 1999-2000. Circulation 110 (2004) 738-743
3. Newman A.B., Sheamanski L., Manolio T.A., et al. Ankle-arm index as a predictor of cardiovascular disease and mortality in the Cardiovascular Health Study. The Cardiovascular Health Study Group. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 19 (1999) 538-545
4. Gey D.C., Lesho E.P., and Manngold J. Management of peripheral arterial disease. Am Fam Physician 69 (2004) 525-532
5. Cimminiello C. PAD. Epidemiology and pathophysiology. Thromb Res 106 (2002) V295-V301
6. Leibson C.L., Ransom J.E., Olson W., et al. Peripheral arterial disease, diabetes, and mortality. Diabetes Care 27 (2004) 2843-2849
7. Gutierrez J., de Dios Luna J., Linares J., et al. Relationship between peripheral arterial occlusive disease (PAOD) and chronic Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) pneumoniae infection. A meta-analysis. Thromb Haemost 93 (2005) 1153-1160
8. Criqui M.H., Vargas V., Denenberg J.O., et al. Ethnicity and peripheral arterial disease. The San Diego Population Study. Circulation 112 (2005) 2703-2707
9. Feinglass J., Rucker-Whitaker C., Lindquist L., McCarthy W.J., and Pearce W.H. Racial differences in primary and repeat lower extremity amputation: results from a multihospital study. J Vasc Surg 41 (2005) 823-829
10. Imparato A.M., Kim G.F., Davidson T., and Crowley J.G. Intermittent claudication: its natural course. Surgery 78 (1975) 795-799
11. Rockson S.G., and Cooke J.P. Peripheral arterial insufficiency: mechanisms, natural history, and therapeutic options. Adv Intern Med 43 (1998) 253-277
12. Criqui M.H., Langer R.D., Fronek A., et al. Mortality over a period of 10 years in patients with peripheral arterial disease. N Engl J Med 326 (1992) 381-386
13. Long T.H., Criqui M.H., Vasilevskis E.E., et al. The correlation between the severity of peripheral artery disease and carotid occlusive disease. Vasc Med 4 (1999) 135-142
14. Leng G.C., Lee A.J., Fowkes F.G., et al. Incidence, natural history and cardiovascular events in symptomatic and asymptomatic peripheral arterial disease in the general population. Int J Epidemiol 25 (1996) 1172-1181
15. Caicoya Gomez-Moran M., Corrales Canel C., Lasheras Mayo C., et al. The association between a cerebrovascular accident and peripheral arterial disease: a case-control study in Asturias, Spain. Rev Clin Esp 195 (1995) 830-835
16. Tonelli C., Finzi G., Catamo A., et al. Prevalence and prognostic value of peripheral arterial disease in stroke patients. Int Angiol 12 (1993) 342-343
17. McKenna M., Wolfson S., and Kuller L. The ratio of ankle and arm arterial pressure as an independent predictor of mortality. Atherosclerosis 87 (1991) 119-128
18. Dormandy J.A., Heeck L., and Vig S. The fate of patients with critical leg ischemia. Semin Vasc Surg 12 (1999) 142-147
19. Hirsch A.T., Criqui M.H., Treat-Jacobson D., et al. Peripheral arterial disease detection, awareness, and treatment in primary care. JAMA 286 (2001) 1317-1324
20. Jensen S.A., Vatten L.J., Romundstad P.R., and Myhre H.O. The prevalence of asymptomatic arterial obstruction in the lower extremities among men and women 60 to 69 years of age. Int Angiol 22 (2003) 340-343
21. McDermott M.M., Greenland P., Liu K., et al. Leg symptoms in peripheral arterial disease: associated clinical characteristics and functional impairment. JAMA 286 (2001) 1599-1606
22. McDermott M.M., Greenland P., Liu K., et al. The ankle brachial index is associated with leg function and physical activity: the Walking and Leg Circulation Study. Ann Intern Med 136 (2002) 873-883
23. McDermott M.M., Criqui M.H., Greenland P., et al. Leg strength in peripheral arterial disease: associations with disease severity and lower extremity performance. J Vasc Surg 39 (2004) 523-530
24. McDermott M.M., Liu K., Greenland P., et al. Functional decline in peripheral arterial disease: associations with the ankle brachial index and leg symptoms. JAMA 292 (2004) 453-461
25. McDermott M.M., Greenland P., Guralnik J.M., et al. Depressive symptoms and lower extremity functioning in men and women with peripheral arterial disease. J Gen Intern Med 18 (2003) 461-467
26. McGee S.R., and Boyko E.J. Physical examination and chronic lower-extremity ischemia: a critical review. Arch Intern Med 158 (1998) 1357-1364
27. Gathan V. The noninvasive vascular laboratory. Surg Clin North Am 78 (1998) 507-518
28. Resnick H.E., Lindsay R.S., McDermott M.M., et al. Relationship of high and low ankle brachial index to all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality: the Strong Heart Study. Circulation 109 (2004) 733-799
29. Barnes R.W. Noninvasive diagnostic assessment of peripheral vascular disease. Circulation 83 Suppl. 2 (1991) 20-27
30. Portugaller H.R., Schoellnast H., Hausegger K.A., et al. Multislice spiral CT angiography in peripheral arterial occlusive disease: a valuable tool in detecting significant arterial narrowing?. Eur Radiol 14 (2004) 1681-1687
31. Koelemay M.J., Lijmer J.G., Stoker J., Legemate D.A., and Bossuyt P. Magnetic resonance angiography for the evaluation of lower extremity arterial disease: a meta-analysis. JAMA 285 (2001) 1338-1345
32. Rose S.C. Noninvasive vascular laboratory for evaluation of peripheral arterial occlusive disease: Part II. Clinical applications: chronic usually atherosclerotic lower extremity ischemia. J Vasc Interv Radiol 11 (2000) 1257-1275
33. Nicholas G.G., Myers J.L., and DeMuth Jr. W.E. The role of vascular laboratory criteria in the selection of patients for lower extremity amputation. Ann Surg 195 (1982) 469-473
34. Carter S.A. The relationship of distal systolic pressures to healing of skin lesions in limbs with arterial occlusive disease, with special reference to diabetes mellitus. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 31 Suppl (1973) 239-243
35. Baker W.H., and Barnes R.W. Minor forefoot amputations in patients with low ankle pressure. Am J Surg 133 (1977) 331-332
36. Holstein P., Noer I., Tonnesen K.H., Sager P., and Lassen N.A. Distal blood pressure in severe arterial insufficiency: strain-gauge, radioisotopes, and other methods. In: Bergan J.J., and Yao S.T. (Eds). Gangrene and severe ischemia of the lower extremities (1978), Grunes & Straton, New York 95-114
37. 2 changes as a predictor of amputation level. J Vasc Surg 2 (1985) 220-227
38. Karanfilian R.G., Lynch T.G., Zirul V.T., et al. The value of laser Doppler velocimetry and transcutaneous oxygen tension determination in predicting healing of ischemic forefoot ulceration and amputations in diabetic and nondiabetic patients. J Vasc Surg 4 (1986) 511-516
39. Ballard J.L., Eke C.C., Bunt T.J., and Killeen J.D. A prospective evaluation of transcutaneous oxygen measurements in the management of diabetic foot problems. J Vasc Surg 22 (1995) 485-492
40. Okaa R.K., Umoh E., Szuba A., Giacomini J.C., and Cooke J.P. Suboptimal intensity of risk factor modification in PAD. Vasc Med 10 (2005) 91-96
41. Jonasson T., and Bergstrom R. Cessation of smoking in patients with intermittent claudication. Effects on the risk of peripheral vascular complications, myocardial infarction, and mortality. Acta Med Scand 221 (1987) 253-260
42. Gordon T., Kannel W.B., McGee D., and Dawber T.R. Death and coronary attacks in men after giving up cigarette smoking: a report from the Framingham Study. Lancet 2 (1974) 1345-1348
43. Schillinger M., Exner M., Mlekusch W., et al. Effect of smoking on restenosis during the 1st year after lower-limb endovascular interventions. Radiology 231 (2004) 831-838
44. Willigendael E.M., Teijink J.A., Bartelink M.L., et al. Smoking and the patency of lower extremity bypass grafts: a meta-analysis. J Vasc Surg 42 (2005) 67-74
45. Hughes J.R., Goldstein M.G., Hurt R.D., and Shiffman S. Recent advances in pharmacotherapy of smoking. JAMA 281 (1999) 72-76
46. LaRosa J.C., Jiang H.E., and Vuputurri S. Effect of statins on risk of coronary disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA 282 (1999) 2340-2346
47. Leng G.C., Price J.F., and Jepson R.G. Lipid-lowering for lower limb atherosclerosis (Cochrane review). Cochrane Library (2001), Update Software, Oxford, England
48. Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 360 (2002) 7-22
49. Grundy S.M., Cleeman J.I., Merz N.B., et al. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III Guidelines. Circulation 110 (2004) 227-239
50. Grodzinska L., Starzyk D., Bieron K., et al. Simvastatin effects in normo- and hypercholesterolemic patients with peripheral arterial occlusive disease: a pilot study. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 96 (2005) 413-419
51. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood glucose control with sulfonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet 352 (1998) 837-853
52. American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes. Diabetes Care 28 Suppl 1 (2005) S4-S36
53. Neal B., MacMahon S., and Chapman N. Effects of ACE inhibitors, calcium antagonists, and other blood-pressure-lowering drugs: results of prospectively designed overviews of randomized trials. Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists' Collaboration. Lancet 356 (2000) 1955-1964
54. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med 342 (2000) 145-153
55. Leng G.C., Fowler B., and Ernst E. Exercise for intermittent claudication. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (1998)
56. Schainfeld R.M. Management of peripheral arterial disease and intermittent claudication. J Am Board Fam Pract 14 (2001) 443-450
57. Dawson D.L., Cutler B.S., Hiatt W.R., et al. A comparison of cilostazol and pentoxyfylline for treating intermittent claudication. Am J Med 109 (2000) 523-530
58. CAPRIE Steering Committee. A randomized, blinded, trial of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients at risk of ischemic events (CAPRIE). Lancet 348 (1996) 1329-1339
59. Diener H.C., Bogousslavsky J., Brass L.M., et al. Aspirin and clopidogrel compared with clopidogrel alone after recent ischaemic stroke or transient ischaemic attack in high-risk patients (MATCH): randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 364 (2004) 331-337
60. Ho V., Wirthlin D., Yun H., and Allison J. Physician supply, treatment, and amputation rates for peripheral arterial disease. J Vasc Surg 42 (2005) 81-87
61. 2 synthase and receptor, reduces 2-year mortality in diabetics with peripheral arterial disease: the DAVID study. Eur Heart J 25 (2004) 1845-1852
62. Violi F., Marubini E., Coccheri S., and Nenci G.G. Improvement of walking distance by defibrotide in patients with intermittent claudication-results of a randomized, placebo-controlled study (the DICLIS study). Defibrotide Intermittent Claudication Italian Study. Thromb Haemost 83 (2000) 672-677
63. Balzer K., Bechara G., Bisler H., et al. Reduction of ischaemic rest pain in advanced peripheral arterial occlusive disease. A double blind placebo controlled trial with iloprost. Int Angiol 10 (1991) 229-232
64. Anonymous. Two randomized and placebo-controlled studies of an oral prostacyclin analogue (iloprost) in severe leg ischaemia. The Oral Iloprost in Severe Leg Ischaemia Study Group. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 20 (2000) 358-362
65. 2 analogue, for intermittent claudication. A double-blind, randomized, multicenter controlled trial. Circulation 102 (2000) 426-431
66. 2 analogue. A double-blinded, randomized, controlled trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 41 (2003) 1679-1686
67. 1} studies in peripheral arterial occlusive disease stages III and IV. Vasa 33 (2004) 137-144
68. Brevetti G., Diehm C., and Lambert D. European multicenter study on propionyl-l-carnitine in intermittent claudication. J Am Coll Cardiol 34 (1999) 1618-1624
69. Hiatt W.R., Regensteiner J.G., Creager M.A., et al. Propionyl-l-carnitine improves exercise performance and functional status in patients with claudication. Am J Med 110 (2001) 616-622
70. Hiatt W.R. Treatment of disability in peripheral arterial disease: new drugs. Curr Drug Targets-Cardiovasc Haematol Disord 4 (2004) 227-231
71. Lehert P., Comte S., Gamand S., and Brown T.M. Naftidrofuryl in intermittent claudication: a retrospective analysis. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 23 (1994) S48-S52
72. Bonvini R., Baumgartner I., Do do D., et al. Late acute thrombotic occlusion after endovascular brachytherapy and stenting of femoropopliteal arteries. J Am Coll Cardiol 41 (2003) 409-412
73. Zabakis P., Kardamakis D.M., Siablis D., et al. External beam radiation therapy reduces the rate of re-stenosis in patients treated with femoral stenting: results of a randomized study. Radiother Oncol 74 (2005) 11-16
74. Bhatt D.L., Hirsch A.T., Ringleb P.A., Hacke W., and Topol E.J. Reduction in the need for hospitalization for recurrent ischemic events and bleeding with clopidogrel instead of aspirin. CAPRIE Investigators. Am Heart J 140 (2000) 67-73
75. Schleinitz M.D., Weiss J.P., and Owens D.K. Clopidogrel versus aspirin for secondary prophylaxis of vascular events: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Am J Med 116 (2004) 797-806
76. Jagroop I.A., Matsagas M.I., Geroulakos G., and Mikhailidis D.P. The effect of clopidogrel, aspirin and both antiplatelet drugs on platelet function in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Platelets 15 (2004) 117-125
77. Johnson W.C., and Williford W.O. Benefits, morbidity, and mortality associated with long-term administration of oral anticoagulant therapy to patients with peripheral arterial bypass procedures: a prospective randomized study. J Vasc Surg 35 (2002) 413-421
78. Wiesli P., Czerwenka W., Meniconi A., et al. Roxithromycin treatment prevents progression of peripheral arterial occlusive disease in Chlamydia pneumoniae seropositive men: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Circulation 105 (2002) 2646-2652
79. Vainas T., Stassen F.R., Schurink G.W., et al. Secondary prevention of atherosclerosis through Chlamydia pneumoniae eradication (SPacing Clin Electrophysiol trial): a randomized clinical trial in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 29 (2005) 403-411
80. Pittler M.H., and Ernst E. Ginkgo biloba extract for the treatment of intermittent claudication: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Am J Med 108 (2000) 276-281
81. Kim H.-J., Jang S.Y., Park J.-I., et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor-induced angiogenic gene therapy in patients with peripheral artery disease. Exp Mol Med 36 (2004) 336-344
82. Melillo G., Serino F., Cirielli C., and Capogrossi M.C. Gene therapy in peripheral artery disease. Curr Drug Targets-Cardiovasc Haematol Disord 4 (2004) 295-300