Digestive physiology and nutrition of ratites

Avian and Poultry Biology Reviews

Volumn 17, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 41-55

  Sales, James ^a  

^a NONE   (South Africa)

Author keywords

Cassowary; Digestion; Emu; Kiwi; Nitrition; Ostrich; Rhea

Indexed keywords

AVES; CASUARIIDAE; DROMAIIDAE; PALAEOGNATHAE; RHEA; RHEIFORMES; STRUTHIO CAMELUS; STRUTHIONIFORMES;

EID: 33846079581     PISSN: 14702061     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3184/147020606783437912     Document Type: Article

References (156)

1. Aganga, A.A., Aganga, A.O. and Omphile, U.J. (2003) Ostrich feeding and nutrition. Pak. J Nutr., 2, 60-67.
2. Angel, C.R. (1993) Research update. Age changes in the digestibility of nutrients in ostriches and nutrient profiles of the hen and chick. Proc. Assoc. Avian Vet., pp. 275-281.
3. Angel, C.R. (1996) A review of ratite nutrition. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 60, 241-246.
4. Beddard, F.E. (1899) Notes on the anatomy of the genus Apteryx. Novit. Zool., 6, 386-402.
5. Beddard, F.E. (1911) On the alimentary tract of certain birds and on the mesenteric relations of the intestinal loops. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1911, 47-93.
6. Benham, W.B. (1906) The olfactory sense in Apteryx. Nature, 74, 222-223.
7. Bertram, R.C.B. (1980) Vigilance and group size in ostriches. Anim. Behav., 28, 278-286.
8. Bertram, R.C.B. (1992) The Ostrich Communal Nesting System. Princeton University Press, New Jersey, USA, pp. 212.
9. Bezuidenhout, A.J. (1993) The spiral fold of the caecum in the ostrich (Struthio camelus). J. Anat., 183, 587-592.
10. Bezuidenhout, A.J. (1986) The topography of the thoraco-abdominal viscera in the ostrich (Struthio camelus). Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res., 53, 111-117.
11. Bezuidenhout, A.J. (1999) Anatomy, In: The Ostrich Biology, Production and Health, Deeming, D.C. (ed.) CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp. 13-49.
12. Bezuidenhout, A.J. and Van Aswegen, G. (1990) A light microscopic and immunocytochemical study of the gastro-intestinal tract of the ostrich (Struthio camelus). Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res., 57, 37-48.
13. Blache, D. and Martin, G.B. (1999) Day length affects feeding behaviour and food intake in adult male emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae). Br. Poulry Sci., 40, 573-578.
14. Blake, J.P. and Hess, J.B. (2004) Effect of protein on growth and carcass yield of emu. Int. J. Poultry Sci., 3, 211-214.
15. Bonino, N., Bonvissuto, G., Pelliza-Sbriller, A. and Somlo, R. (1986) Hábitos alimentarios de los herbívores en la zona central del área ecológica Sierras y Mesetas Occidentales de Patagonia. Rev. Arg. Prod. Anim., 6, 275-287.
16. Bowers, C.L., Friend, T.H., Grissom, K.K. and Lay, D.C. (1993) Confinement of lambs (Ovis aries) in metabolism stalls increased adrenal function, thyroxine and motivation for movement. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 36, 149-158.
17. Brand, T.S., Salih, M., van der Merwe, J.P. and Brand, Z. (2000a) Comparison of estimates of feed energy obtained from ostriches with estimates obtained from pig, poultry and ruminants. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci., 30, 13-14.
18. Brand, T.S., Hayes, J.P., De Brabander, C., Van Schalkwyk, S.J., Pfister, B. and Brand, Z. (2000b) The true metabolisable energy content of canola oilcake meal and full-fat canola seed for ostriches (Strutio camelus) and chickens. Br. Poultry Sci., 41, 201-203.
19. Brand, T.S., Nel, C.J. and Van Schalkwyk, S.J. (2000c) The effect of dietary energy and protein level on the production of growing ostriches. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci., 30, 15-16.
20. Brand, Z., Brand, T.S. and Brown, C. (2003a) The effect of dietary energy and protein levels on production in breeding female ostriches. Br. Poulry Sci., 44, 598-606.
21. Brand, Z., Brand, T.S. and Brown, C.R. (2003b) The effect of dietary energy and protein during a breeding season of ostriches on production the following season. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci., 32, 226-230.
22. Brand, Z., Brand, T.S. and Brown, C. (2003c) The effect of dietary energy and protein levels on condition and production of male ostriches. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci., 32, 231-238.
23. Brand, Z., Brand, T.S. and Brown, C. (2003d) The effect of different combinations of dietary energy and protein on the composition of ostrich eggs. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci., 33, 193-200.
24. Brand, T.S., Gous, R.M., Horbanczuk, J.O., Kruger, A.C.M., Aucamp, B.B. and Brand, Z. (2004a) The effect of dietary energy and protein (amino acid) concentrations on the end products of slaughter ostriches. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci., 34, 107-109.
25. Brand, T.S., Gous, R.M., Kruger, A.C.M., Aucamp, B.B., Nel, C.J. and Horbanczuk, J.O. (2004b) The effect of dietary energy and protein (amino acid) concentration on the performance of slaughter ostriches. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci., 34, 104-106.
26. Brown, E. (1682) An account of the dissection of an ostrich sent to the Royal Society. Philosophical Collection, Roy. Soc. Lond., 5, 147-152.
27. Burger, J. and Gochfeld, M. (1988) Effects of group size and sex on vigilance in ostriches (Struthio camelus): antipredator strategy or mate competition? Ostrich, 59, 14-20.
28. Cho, P., Brown, R. and Anderson, M. (1984) Comparative gross anatomy of ratites. Zoo Biol., 3, 133-144.
29. Cilliers, S.C. and Angel, C.R. (1999) Basic concepts and recent advances in digestion and nutrition. In: The Ostrich Biology, Production and Health, Deeming, D.C. (ed.) CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp. 105-128.
30. Cilliers, S.C. and Hayes, J.P. (1996) Feedstuff evaluation and metabolisable and amino acid requirements for maintenance and growth. In: Improving our Understanding of Ratites in a Farming Environment, Deeming, D.C. (ed.) Ratite Conference, Oxfordshire, UK, pp. 85-92.
31. Cilliers, S.C., Hayes, J.P., Maritz, J.S., Chwalibog, A. and Du Preez, J.J. (1994) True and apparent metabolisable energy values of lucerne and yellow maise in adult roosters and mature ostriches (Struthio camelus). Anim. Prod., 59, 309-313.
32. Cilliers, S.C., Hayes, J.P., Chwalibog, A., Du Preez, J.J. and Sales, J. (1997a) A comparative study between mature ostriches (Struthio camelus) and adult cockerels with respect to true and apparent metabolisable energy values for maise, barley, oats and triticale. Br. Poultry Sci., 38, 96-100.
33. Cilliers, S.C., Hayes, J.P., Chwalibog, A., Du Preez, J.J. and Sales, J. (1997b) A comparative study between mature ostriches (Struthio camelus) and adult cockerels with regard to the true and apparent digestibilities of amino acids. Br Poultry Sci., 38, 311-313.
34. Cilliers, S.C., Hayes, J.P., Sales, J., Chwalibog, A. and Du Preez, J.J. (1998a) A comparison of metabolisable energy values of lucerne and barley between young and mature ostriches. Arch. Anim. Nutr., 51, 77-82.
35. n values of various ingredients in a complete diet for ostriches and adult roosters. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 71, 369-373.
36. Cilliers, S.C., Hayes, J.P., Chwalibog, A., Sales, J. and Du Preez, J.J. (1998c) Determination of energy, protein and amino acid requirements for maintenance and growth in ostriches. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 72, 283-293.
37. Cilliers, S.C. and Sales, J. (1999) A note on metabolisable energy value of molasses for ostriches. J. Anim. Feed Sci., 8, 123-126.
38. Cilliers, S.C., Sales, J., Hayes, J.P., Chwalibog, A. and Du Preez, J.J. (1999) Comparison of metabolisable energy values of different feedstuffs between ostriches and poultry. Br. Poultry Sci., 40, 491-494.
39. Cloudsley-Thompson, J.L. and Muhamed, E.R.M. (1967). Water economy of the ostrich. Nature, 216, 1040.
40. Colbourne, R. and Powlesland, R.G. (1988) Diet of the Stewart Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis lawryi) at Scollay's Flat, southern Stewart Island. New Zeal. J. Ecol., 11, 99-104.
41. Colbourne, R., Baird, K. and Jolly, J. (1990) Relationship between invertebrates eaten by little spotted kiwi, Apteryx owenii, and their availability on Kapati Island, New Zealand. New Zeal. J. Zool., 17, 533-542.
42. Conway, W.G. (1980) An overview of captive propagation, In: Conservation Biology: An Evolutionary-Ecological Perspective, Soulé, M.E. and Wilcox, B.A. (eds.) Sinauer Associates, Inc. Publishers, Massachusetts, USA, pp. 199-208.
43. Cooper, S.N. and Palmer, T. (1994) Observations on the dietary choice of free-ranging juvenile ostriches. Ostrich. 65, 251-255.
44. Crome, F.H.J. (1976) Some observations on the biology of the cassowary in northern Queensland. Emu, 76, 8-14
45. Davies, S.J.J.F. (1978) The food of emus. Aust. J. Ecol., 3, 411-422.
46. Dawson, T.J. and Herd, R.M. (1983) Digestion in the emu, Dromaius novaehollandiae: low energy and nitrogen requirements of this large ratite bird. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 75A, 41-45.
47. Dawson, T.J., Herd, R.M. and Skadhauge, E. (1983) Water turnover and body water distribution during dehydration in a large arid-zone bird, the emu, Dromaius novaehollandiae. J. Comp. Physiol., B153, 235-240.
48. Dawson, T.J., Herd, R.M. and Skadhauge, E. (1985) Osmotic and ionic regulation during dehydration in a large bird, the emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae): An important role for the cloaca-rectum. Q. J. Exp. Physiol., 70, 423-436.
49. Dawson, T.J., Maloney, S.K. and Skadhauge, E. (1991) The role of the kidney in electrolyte and nitrogen excretion in a large flightless bird, the emu, during different osmotic regimes, including dehydration and nesting. J. Comp. Physiol., B161, 165-171.
50. Dawson, T.J., Read, D., Russell, E.M. and Herd, R.M. (1984) Seasonal variation in daily activities patterns, water relations and diet of emus. Emu, 84, 93-102.
51. Dean, W.R.J., Milton, S.J., Siegfried, W.R. and Jarvis, M.J.F. (1994) Diet, mobility and reproductive potential of ostriches: successful tactics for life in arid regions, In: Wildlife Ranching: a Celebration of Diversity, Van Hoven, W., Ebedes, H. and Conroy, A. (eds.) Promedia, Pretoria, South Africa, pp. 8-16.
52. Deeming, D.C. and Bubier, N.E. (1999) Behaviour in natural and captive environments. In: The Ostrich Biology, Production and Health, Deeming, D.C. (ed.) CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp. 83-104.
53. Degen, A., Duke, G. and Reynhout, J. (1994) Gastroduodenal motility and glandular stomach function in young ostriches. Auk, 111, 750-755.
54. Del Hoyo, J., Elliot, A. and Sargatal, J. (1992) Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 1: Ostrich to Ducks, Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain, pp. 640.
55. Drenowatz, C., Sales, J., Sarasqueta, D.V. and Weilbrenner, A. (1995) History & Geography, In: Ratite Encyclopedia, Drenowatz, C. (ed.) Ratite Records Inc., San Antonio, Texas, USA, pp. 3-29.
56. Duerden, J. (1912) Experiments with ostriches. XX. The anatomy and physiology of the ostrich. C. The internal organs, Part 1. Agric. J. Union of South Africa, 3, 492-507.
57. Du Preez, J.J. (1991) Ostrich nutrition and management, In: Recent Advances in Animal nutrition in Australia, Farrell, D.J. (ed.) University of New England, Armidale, Australia, pp. 279-291.
58. Du Preez, J.J., Jarvis, M.J.F., Capatos, D. and De Kock, J. (1992) A note on growth curves of ostriches (Struthio camelus). Anim. Prod., 54, 150-152.
59. Emmans, G.C. (1989) The growth of turkeys, In: Recent Advances in Turkey Science, Nixey, C. and Grey T.C. (eds.) Butterworths, London, UK, pp. 135-166.
60. Emmans, G.C. and Fisher, C. (1986) Problems in nutritional theory, In: Nutrient Requirements of Poultry and Nutritional Research, Fisher, C. and Boorman, K.N. (eds.) Butterworths, London, UK, pp. 9-39.
61. Farrell, D.J., Sales, J., Perez-Maldonado, R., Kent, P., Shermer, M. and Mannion, P.F. (2000) The apparent metabolisable energy of diets with different sources of fibre when fed to emus, ostriches and cockerels. Proc. of the 15th Symposium on Energy Metabolism in Animals, Copenhagen, Danmark, 11-16 September 2000, pp. 141-143.
62. Feder, F.-H. (1972) Zur mikroskoptischen Anatomie des Verdauungsapparates beim Nandu (Rhea americana). Anat. Anz., 132, 250-265.
63. Fernández, G.J. and Reboreda, J.C. (2003) Male parental care in Greater Rheas (Rhea americana) in Argentina. Auk, 120, 418-428.
64. Fievez, V., Mbanzamihigo, L., Piattoni, F. and Demeyer, D. (2001) Evidence for reductive acetogenesis and its nutritional significance in ostrich hindgut as estimated from in vitro incubations. J. Anim. Physiol. a. Anim. Nutr., 85, 271-280.
65. Fowler, M.E. (1991) Comparative clinical anatomy of ratites. J. Zoo Wild. Med., 22, 204-227.
66. Gadow, H. (1879) Versuch einer vergleichenden Anatomie des Verdauungssystemes der Vögel. Jena. Z. Med. Naturwischn., 13, 92-171.
67. Gadow, H. (1890) Description of the modification of certain organs. The stomach of the ostrich. Zool. Jahrb., 5, 641-644.
68. Gous, R.M., Moran, E.T., Stilborn, H.R., Bradford, G.D. and Emmans, G. (1999) Evaluation of the parameters needed to describe the overall growth, the chemical growth, and the growth of feathers and breast muscles of broilers. Poultry Sci., 78, 812-821.
69. Herd, R.M. (1985) Anatomy and histology of the gut of the emu, Dromaius novaehollandiae. Emu, 85, 43-46.
70. Herd, R.M. and Dawson, T.J. (1984) Fibre digestion in the emu, Dromaius novaehollandiae, a large bird with a simple gut and high rate of passage. Physiol. Zool., 57, 70-84.
71. Home, E. (1812) On the different structures and situations of the solvent glands in the digestives organs of birds, according to the nature of their food and particular modes of life. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc., 102, 394-404.
72. Home, E. (1813) A description of the solvent glands and gizzards of the ardea argala, the casaurius emu, and the long-legged cassowary from New South Wales. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc., 103, 77-81.
73. Horbanczuk, J.O. and Sales, J. (2001) Egg production of Red and Blue Neck ostriches under European farming conditions. Arch. Geflügelk., 65, 281-283.
74. Huchzermeyer, F.W. (1998) Diseases of ostriches and other ratites. Agricultural Research Council, Pretoria, South Africa, pp. 358.
75. Iji, P.A., Van der Walt, J.G., Brand, T.S., Boomker, E.A. and Booyse, D. (2003) Development of the digestive tract in the ostrich (Struthio camelus). Arch. Anim. Nutr., 57, 217-228.
76. Janssens, G.P.J., Seynaeve, M., De Wilde, R.O. and De Rycke, H. (1997) Voedingsaspecten van de struisvogel (Struthio camelus). Vlaams. Diergen. Tijds., 66, 153-160.
77. Janssens, G., Sales, J. and Van Hemelryck, K. (2003) Het gebruik van interne merkers om de verteerbaarheid bij struisvogels te bepalen. Paper presented at 28th Study Day for Dutch Speaking Nutritionists, University Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, 11 April 2003, pp. 14-15.
78. Kiwi Captive Management Advisory Committee (2004) Captive management plan for kiwi: Apteryx mantelli, Apteryx rowi, Apteryx australis, Apteryx australis 'Haast', Apteryx haastii, Apteryx owenii. Threatened Species Occasional Publication 24, Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand, pp. 42.
79. Lambrechts, H., Swart, D., Greyling, J.P.C., Cloete, S.W.P. and Van Schalkwyk, S.J. (2005) Flush feeding, teasing, and a mid-season breeding rest as management practices to improve the reproductive performance of ostriches (Struthio camelus var. domesticus) in commercial farming systems. Proc. of the 3rd International Ratite Science Symposium & XII World Ostrich Congress, Madrid, 14-16th October 2005, pp. 171-180.
80. Lombardi, C.M. (1994) Feeding and vigilance in wild greater rhea harems. Bird Behav., 10, 29-35.
81. Macalister, A. (1864) On the anatomy of the ostrich (Struthio camelus). Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., 9, 1-24.
82. Mack, A.L. (1995) Seed dispersal by the dwarf cassowary, Casuarius bennetti, in Papua New Guinea, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Miami, Florida, USA, pp. 106.
83. Maloney, S.K. and Dawson, T.J. (1998) Changes in pattern of heat loss at high ambient temperature caused by water deprivation in a large flightless bird, the emu. Physiol. Zool., 71, 712-719.
84. Mannion, P.F., Kent, P.B., Barram, K.M., Trappett, P.C., Blight, C.W. and Sales, J. (1999) Lysine requirements of growing emus. Br. Poultry Sci., 40, 309-311.
85. Martella, M.B., Navarro, J.L., Gonnet, J.M. and Monge, S.A. (1996) Diet of Greater rheas in an agroecosystem of central Argentina. J. Wildl. Manage., 60, 586-592.
86. Martella, M.B., Renison, D. and Navarro, J.L. (1995) Vigilance in the greater rhea: effects of vegetation height and group size. J. Field Ornithol., 66, 215-220.
87. McGrath, R.J. and Bass, D. (1999) Seed dispersal by emus on the New South Wales north-east coast. Emu, 99, 248-252.
88. McLennan, J.A. (1988) Breeding of North Island brown kiwi, Apteryx australis mantelli, in Hawke's Bay, New Zealand. New Zeal. J. Ecol., 11, 89-97.
89. McLennan, J.A., Dew, L., Miles, J., Gillingham, N. and Waiwai, R. (2004) Size matters: predation risk and juvenile growth in North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). New Zeal. J. Ecol., 28, 241-250.
90. Miao, Z.H., Ru, Y.J. and Glatz, P.C. (2003) The nutrition requirements and foraging behaviour of ostriches. Asian Austral. J. Anim. Sci., 16, 773-788.
91. Milton, S.J., Dean, R. and Linton, A. (1993) Consumption of termites by captive ostrich chicks. S. Afr. J. Wildl. Res., 23, 58-60.
92. Milton, S.J., Dean, R. and Siegfried, R. (1994) Food selection by ostrich in Southern Africa. J. Wildl. Manage., 58, 234-248.
93. Mitchell, P.C. (1901) On the intestinal tract of birds; with remarks on the valuation and nomenclature of zoological characters. Trans. Linnean Soc. Lond. Zool., 8, 173-275.
94. Moermond, T.C. and Denslow, J.S. (1985) Neotropical avian frugivores: patterns of behavior, morphology and nutrition, with consequences for fruit selection, In: Neotropical Ornithology, Ornithological Monograph No. 36, Buckley, P.A., Foster, M.A., Morton, E.S., Ridgely, R.S. and Buckley, F.G. (eds.) American Ornithologists' Union, Washington DC, USA, pp. 865-897.
95. Murphy, M.E. (1996) Nutrition and metabolism, In: Avian Energetics and Nutritional Ecology, Carey, C. (ed.) Chapman & Hall, New York, USA, pp. 31-60.
96. Musara, C., Chamunorwa, J.P., Holtug, K. and Skadhauge, E. (2002) Water absorption in relation to fermentation in the colon of the ostrich (Struthio camelus). Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res., 69, 315-320.
97. Musara, C., Chamunorwa, J., Holtug, K. and Skadhauge, E. (2003) Insight into the mechanism of short chain fatty acid absorption in the ostrich (Struthio camelus) proximal colon. Br. Poultry Sci., 44, 316-326.
98. Navarro, J.L. and Martella, M.B. (2002) Reproductivity and raising of Greater Rhea (Rhea americana) and Lesser Rhea (Pterocnemia pennata)-a review. Arch. Geflügelk., 66, 124-132.
99. Navarro, J.L., Barri, F.R., Maestri, D.M., Labuckas, D.O. and Martella, M.B. (2003) Physical characteristics and chemical composition of Lesser Rhea (Pterocnemia pennata) eggs from farmed populations. Br. Poultry Sci., 44, 586-590.
100. Navarro, J.L., Vignolo, P.E., Demaria, M.R., Maceira, N.O. and Martella, M.B. (2005) Growth curves of farmed Greater Rheas (Rhea americana albescens) from central Argentina. Arch. Geflügelk., 69, 90-93.
101. Nheta, C., Topps, J.H., Dzama, K., Kusina, J. and Mugabe, P.H. (2005) In vitro digestibility using caeca liquor of diets containing poor quality roughages and green forages fed to domesticated ostriches (Struthio camelus var. domesticus). Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 119, 283-291.
102. Nitzan, R., Barkai, D., Nitsan, Z. and Landau, S. (2002) Intake, growth and carcass characteristics of young ostriches fed concentrates with and without pasture. Anim. Sci., 74, 71-79.
103. Nizza, A. and Di Meo, C. (2000). Determination of apparent digestibility coefficients in 6- 12- and 18-week-old ostriches. Brit. Poultry Sci., 41, 518-520.
104. Oelofsen, W., Naude, R.J., Litthauer, D. and Saayman, H.S. (1991) Digestive enzymes and hormonal peptides from the pancreas of the ostrich (Struthio camelus): a review. S. Afr. J. Sci., 87, 183-188.
105. O'Malley, P.J. (1995) Nutrition of ratites: Comparison of emu and ostrich requirements. In: Recent Advances in Animal nutrition in Australia, Rowe, J.B. and Nolan, J.V. (eds.) University of New England, Armidale, Australia, pp. 53-61.
106. O'Malley, P.J. (1996) An estimate of the nutritional requirements of emus. In: Improving our Understanding of Ratites in a Farming Environment, Deeming, D.C. (ed.) Ratite Conference, Oxfordshire, UK, pp. 92-108.
107. Orenge, C.O., Mathiu, P.M. and Mbugua, P.N. (2002) Nitrogen retention as an indicator of metabolic utilisation of nitrogen in three months old ostrich chicks (Struthio camelus massaicus). Afr. J. Ecol., 40, 399-400.
108. Owen, R. (1841) On the anatomy of the Southern Apteryx (Apteryx australis, Shaw). Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond., 2, 257-301.
109. Pereira, J.A., Quintana, R.N.D. and Monge, S. (2003) Diets of plains viscacha, greater rhea and cattle in Argentina. J. Range Manage., 56, 13-20.
110. Polat, U., Cetin, M., Ak, I. and Balci, F. (2004) Detection of serum protein fractions and their concentrations in laying and non laying ostriches (Struthio camelus) fed with different dietary protein levels. Revue Méd. Vét., 155, 570-574.
111. Pratt, T.K. (1982) Diet of the dwarf cassowary Casaurius benetti picticollis at Wau, Papua New Guinea. Emu, 82, 283-285.
112. Pycraft, W.P. (1901) Part II. On the morphology and phylogeny of the Palaeognathae (Ratitae and Crypturi) and Neognathae (Carinatae). Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond., 15, 149-290.
113. Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service (2001) Recovery plan for the southern cassowary Casuarius casuarius johnsonii 2001-2005. Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, Brisbane, Australia, pp. 39.
114. Ranby, J. (1724-1725) Some observations made in an ostrich. Philos. Trans., 33, 223-227.
115. Raikow, R.J. (1968) Maintenance behaviour of the common rhea. Wilson Bull., 80, 312-319.
116. Reid, B. (1987) Food intake and growth rate of Cassowary chicks Casuarius spp. reared at Mendi, Southern Highland Papua New Guinea. Int. Zoo Yearb., 26, 189-198.
117. Reid, B. and Williams, G.R. (1975) The kiwi. In: Biogeography and ecology in New Zealand, Kuschel, G. (ed.) Dr. W. Junk, B.V., The Hague, The Netherlands, pp. 301-330.
118. Reid, B., Ordish, R.G. and Harrison, M. (1982) An analysis of the gizzard contents of 50 North Island brown kiwis, Apteryx australis mantelli, and notes on feeding observations. New Zeal. J. Ecol., 5, 76-85.
119. Romer, L. (1997) Cassowary husbandry manual. Results of a workshop held at Currumbin Sanctuary 1996, Currumbin Sanctuary Conservation Unit, Currumbin, Queensland, Australia, pp. 34.
120. Ross, E.J. and Deeming, D.C. (1998) Feeding and vigilance behaviour of adult ostriches breeding in a farmed environment in Britain. Br. Poultry Sci., 39, 173-177.
121. Sales, J. (2004) Ratites: Nutrition Management. In: Encyclopedia of Animal Science, Pond, W.G. and Bell, A.W. (eds.) Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, USA, pp. 767-769.
122. Sales, J. (2005) The endangered kiwi: a review. Folia Zool., 54, 1-20
123. Sales, J. (2006a) Nutrition of double-wattled cassowaries Casuarius casuarius. Zoos' Print J., 21, 2193-2196.
124. Sales, J. (2006b) Feeding of the captive kiwi. Zoos' Print. J., 21, 2454-2458.
125. Sales, J. and Janssens, G.P.J. (2003) The use of markers to determine energy metabolisability and nutrient digestibility in avian species. World Poultry Sci. J., 59, 314-327.
126. Sarasqueta, D.V. (2005) Aspects of rearing, reproduction and hybridisation of Darwin's rhea or Choique (Rhea pennata syn, Pterocnemia pennata, spp pennata). Proc. of the 3rd International Ratite Science Symposium & XII World Ostrich Congress, Madrid, 14-16th October 2005, pp. 35-44.
127. Sauer, E.G. and Sauer, E.M. (1966) The behaviour and ecology of the South African ostrich. In: The Living Bird, Pettingill, O.S. and Lancaster, D.A. (eds.) Fifth annual report of the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, USA, pp. 45-74.
128. Sharp, P.J., Van Cleeff, J.K., Martin, G.B. and Blache, D. (2005) Photoperiodic control of seasonal breeding and appetite in the emu. Proc. of the 3rd International Ratite Science Symposium & XII World Ostrich Congress, Madrid. 14-16th October 2005, pp. 53-59.
129. Skadhauge, E. and Dawson, A. (1999) Physiology. In: The Ostrich Biology, Production and Health, Deeming, D.C. (ed.) CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp. 51-81.
130. Skadhauge, E., Dawson, T.J., Prŷs-Jones, R. and Warüi, C.N. (1996) The role of the kidney and the gut in osmoregulation. In: Improving our Understanding of Ratites in a Farming Environment, Deeming, D.C. (ed.) Ratite Conference, Oxfordshire, UK, pp. 115-122.
131. Skadhauge, E., Maloney, S.K. and Dawson, T.J. (1991) Osmotic adaptation of the emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae). J. Comp. Physiol., B161, 173-178.
132. Skadhauge, E., Prŷs-Jones, R.P., Swart, D. and Warüi, C.N. (1995). Colonic SCFA and electrolyte absorption and nasal glad development, in relation to NACl intake in the ostrich (Struthio camelus). Pflügers Arch. Eur. J. Physiol., 430, R73.
133. Skadhauge, E., Warüi, C.N., Kamau, J.M.Z. and Maloiy, G.M.D. (1984) Function of the lower intestine and osmoregulation in the ostrich, Struthio camelus: preliminary anatomical and physiological considerations. Q. J. Exp. Physiol., 69, 809-818.
134. Smith, W.A. and Sales, J. (1995) Feeding and feed management. In: Practical Guide for Ostrich Management and Ostrich Products, Smith, W.A. (ed.) An Alltech Inc. Publication, University of Stellenbosch Publishers, Stellenbosch, South Africa, pp. 8-19.
135. Smith, W.A., Cilliers, S.C., Mellett, F.D. and Van Schalkwyk, S.J. (1995) Ostrich Production-A South African Perspective Alltech's 11th Annual Symposium, May 8-10 1995, Lexington, KY, USA, pp. 175-197.
136. Stocker, G.C. and Irvine, A.K. (1983) Seed dispersal by cassowaries (Casaurius casaurius) in north Queensland's rainforests. Biotropica, 15, 170-176.
137. Streicher, E., Naude, R. and Oelofsen, W. (1985) The isolation and characterisation of pepsinogens from the proventriculus of the ostrich Struthio camelus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 82B, 67-72.
138. Strong, R.W. (1911) On the olfactory organs and the sense of smell in birds. J. Morphol., 22, 619-661.
139. Swart, D., Mackie, R.I. and Hayes, J.P. (1987) For feathers and leather. Nuclear Active, 36, 2-9.
140. Swart, D., Mackie, R.I. and Hayes, J.P. (1993a) Fermentative digestion in the ostrich (Struthio camelus var. domesticus), a large avian species that utilises cellulose. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci., 23, 127-135.
141. Swart, D., Mackie, R.I. and Hayes, J.P. (1993b) Influence of live mass, rate of passage and site of digestion on energy metabolism and fibre digestion in the ostrich (Struthio camelus var. domesticus). S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci., 23, 119-126.
142. Swart, D., Siebrits, F.K. and Hayes, J.P. (1993c) Utilisation of metabolisable energy by ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks at two different concentrations of dietary energy and crude fibre originating from lucerne. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci., 23, 136-141.
143. Taborsky, M. and Brugger, C. (1994) The functional significance of shared incubation. J. Ornith., 135, 273.
144. Thomas, D.H. (1997) The ecophysiological role of the avian lower gastrointestinal tract. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 118A, 247-255.
145. Tilley, J.M.A. and Terry, R.A. (1963) A two-stage technique for the in vitro digestion of forage crops. J. Br. Grassl. Soc., 18, 104-111.
146. Ullrey, D.E. and Allen, M.E. (1996) Nutrition and feeding of ostriches. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 59, 27-36.
147. Van Tuinen, M., Sibley, C.G. and Hedges, S.B. (1998) Phylogeny and biogeography of ratite birds inferred from DNA sequences of the mitochondrial ribosomal genes. Mol. Biol. Evol., 15, 370-376.
148. Viljoen, M., Brand, T.S. and Van der Walt, J.G. (2005) The effect of different dietary energy and protein levels on the digestive anatomy of ostriches. Proc. of the 3rd International Ratite Science Symposium & XII World Ostrich Congress, Madrid, 14-16th October 2005, p. 259.
149. Warren, G. (1726-1727) Observations upon the dissection of an ostrich. Philos. Trans., 34, 113-117.
150. Webber, B.L. and Woodrow, I.E. (2004) Cassowary frugivory, seed defleshing and fruit fly infestation influence the transition from seed to seedling in the rare Australian rainforest tree, Ryparosa sp nov 1 (Achariaceae). Funct. Plant Biol., 31, 505-516.
151. Wenzel, B.M. (1968) Olfactory process in the kiwi. Nature, 220, 1133-1134.
152. Wenzel, B.M. (1971) Olfactory sensation in the kiwi and other birds. Ann. NY Acad. Sci., 188, 183-193.
153. Westcott, D.A., Bentrupperbäumer, J., Bradford, M.G. and McKeown, A. (2005) Incorporating patterns of disperser behaviour into models of seed dispersal and its effects on estimated dispersal curves. Oecologia, 146, 57-67.
154. Williams, J.B., Siegfried, W.R., Milton, S.J., Adams, N.J., Dean, W.R.J., Du Plessis, M.A., Jackson, S. and Nagy, K.A. (1993) Field metabolism, water requirements and foraging behaviour of wild ostriches in the Namib. Ecology, 74, 568-579.
155. Wilson, M.F. (1989) Gut retention times of experimental pseudoseeds by emus. Biotropica, 21, 210-213.
156. Wright, D.D. (1998) Fruit choice by the dwarf cassowary, Casuarius bennetti, over a three year period in Papua New Guinea. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Miami, Florida, USA, pp. 193.