The endangered kiwi: A review

Folia Zoologica

Volumn 54, Issue 1-2, 2005, Pages 1-20

  Sales, James ^a  

^a NONE   (South Africa)

Author keywords

Conservation; Kiwi; Nutrition; Reproduction; Taxonomy

Indexed keywords

CAPTIVE BREEDING; DIET; ENDANGERED SPECIES; PREDATOR CONTROL; REPRODUCTION; SPECIES CONSERVATION; TAXONOMY;

AUSTRALASIA; EASTERN HEMISPHERE; NEW ZEALAND; WORLD;

ACTINIDIA CHINENSIS; APTERYX; APTERYX AUSTRALIS; APTERYX AUSTRALIS MANTELLI; APTERYX HAASTII; APTERYX OWENII; APTERYX ROWI; AVES; INVERTEBRATA; MAMMALIA; PALAEOGNATHAE; PHERETIMA SIEBOLDI; STRUTHIONIFORMES;

EID: 22144455064     PISSN: 01397893     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. ASCHOFF J. & POHL H. 1970: Rhythmic variations in energy metabolism. Fed. Proc. 29: 1541-1552.
2. BAKER A.J., DAUGHERTY C.H., COLBOURNE R. & McLENNAN J.L. 1995: Flightless brown kiwi of New Zealand possess extremely subdivided population structure and cryptic species like small mammals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 92: 8254-8258.
3. BANG G.B. 1971: Functional anatomy of the olfactory system in 23 orders of birds. Acta Anat Suppl. Vol. 79: 1-76.
4. BANG G.B. & COBB S. 1968: The size of the olfactory bulb in 108 species of birds. Auk 85: 55-61.
5. BARTLETT A.D. 1850: On the genus Apteryx. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1850: 274-276.
6. BASSE B., McLENNAN J.A. & WAKE G.C. 1999. Analysis of the impact of stoats, Mustela erminea, on northern brown kiwi, Apteryx mantelli, in New Zealand. Wildl. Res. 26: 227-237.
7. BASSETT S., TRAVERS C., HARVEY C., McCORMACK H. & VERCOE D. 2003: Collecting eggs and hatching chicks: the contribution of artificial incubation to kiwi conservation. Proc. Aust. Ornithol. Conf., Australian National University, Canberra, Australia: 18.
8. BEALE G. 1991: The maturation of the skeleton of a kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) - a ten year radiological study. J. Roy. Soc. NZ 21: 219-220.
9. BEDDARD F.E. 1899: Notes on the anatomy of the genus Apteryx. Novit. Zool. 6: 386-402.
10. BENHAM W.B. 1906: The olfactory sense in Apteryx. Nature 74: 222-223.
11. BISHOP D.M. 1984: Kiwialges haastii n. sp., a feather mite (Acari: Analgidae) from the great spotted kiwi, Apteryx haastii Potts, 1872 (Aves: Apterygidae); with a key to species of Kiwialges, and new host records. NZ J. Zool. 11: 233-237.
12. BOARDMAN W. 1998: Causes of kiwi mortality. Proc. New Zealand Conservation Management Group - Kiwi Workshop, Westshore Wildlife Reserve, Watchman Road, Napier, New Zealand: 61-68.
13. BODY D.R. & REID B. 1983: The lipid and amino acid composition of the kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) ratite eggs. J. Sci. Food Agric. 34: 587-592.
14. BULL P.C. 1959: Stomach contents of a North Island kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) from the Raetihi district. Notornis 8: 143-145.
15. BULLER W.L. 1888: A History of the Birds of New Zealand. 2nd Edition. The Author, London, UK.
16. BULLER, W.L. 1891: On the large kiwi from Stewart Island (Apteryx maxima). Trans. Proc.NZ Inst. 24: 91-92.
17. BURBIDGE M.L., COLBOURNE R.M., ROBERTSON H.A. & BAKER A.J. 2003: Molecular and other biological evidence supports the recognition of at least three species of brown kiwi. Cons. Gen. 4:167-177.
18. BUTLER D. & MCLENNAN J. 1991: Kiwi Recovery Plan. Threatened Species Recovery Plan 2. Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand.
19. CALDER W.A. 1978: The kiwi. Sci. Am. 239: 132-142.
20. CALDER W.A. 1979: The kiwi and egg design: evolution as a package deal. Biosci. 29: 461-467.
21. CALDER W.A. & DAWSON T.J. 1978: Resting metabolic rates of ratite birds: The kiwis and the emu. Comp. Bioch. Physiol. 60A: 479-481.
22. CALDER W.A., PARR C.R. & KARL D.P. 1978: Energy content of eggs of the brown kiwi Apteryx australis; an extreme in avian evolution. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 60A: 177-179.
23. CLARK W.C. 1983: Nematodes of kiwis. NZ J. Zool. 10: 129.
24. CLARK W.C. & McKENZIE J.C. 1982: North Island kiwi, Apteryx australis mantelli (Apterygiformes, Aves) - a new host for Toxocara cati (Nematoda, Ascaridoidea) in New Zealand. J. Parasit. 68: 175-176.
25. CLAY T. 1961: A new genus and species of Menoponidae (Mallophaga, Insecta) from Apteryx. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (Series 13) 3: 571-576.
26. CLAY T. 1966: A new species of Apterygon (Mallophaga: Menoponidae). Entomol. 99: 292-293.
27. CLAY T. 1972: The species of Rallicola (Insecta: Phthiraptera: Ischnocera) parasitic on kiwis (Apteryx). NZ J. Sci. 15: 70-76.
28. CLAYTON L.F. 1972: Breeding and behaviour of the kiwi (A .a. mantelli) at Sydney Zoo. Int. Zoo Yearb. 12: 134-136.
29. COCKREM J.F., GOUDSWAARD R., FOX E.K., SIBLEY M., JOHNSON T.M. & BELL M.J. 1992: The breeding season of three species of kiwi (Apteryx) in captivity as determined from egg-laying dates. J. Zool. (Lond.) 226: 95-107.
30. COLBOURNE R. 2002: Incubation behaviour and egg physiology of kiwi (Apteryx spp.) in natural habitats. NZ J. Ecol 26: 129-138.
31. COLBOURNE R., BAIRD K. & JOLLY J. 1990: Relationship between invertebrates eaten by little spotted kiwi, Apteryx owenii, and their availability on Kapati Island, New Zealand. NZ J. Zool. 17: 533-542.
32. COLBOURNE R. & KLEINPASTE R. 1983: A banding study of North Island Brown Kiwi in an exotic forest. Notornis 30: 109-124.
33. COLBOURNE R. & KLEINPASTE R. 1984: North Island Brown Kiwi vocalizations and their use in censusing populations. Notornis 31: 191-201.
34. COLBOURNE R. & POWLESLAND R.G. 1988: Diet of the Stewart Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis lawryi) at Scollay's Flat, southern Stewart Island. NZ J. Ecol. 11: 99-104.
35. COLBOURNE R.M. & ROBERTSON H.A. 1997: Successful translocations of little spotted kiwi (Apteryx owenii) between offshore islands of New Zealand. Notornis 44: 253-258.
36. COOPER A., MOURER-CHAUVIRE C., CHAMBER G.K., VON HAELELER A. WILSON A. & PÄÄBO S. 1992: Independent origins of New Zealand moas and kiwis. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 89: 8741-8744.
37. CRAIGIE E.H. 1930: Studies on the brain of the kiwi. J. Comp. Neurol. 49: 223-357.
38. DAVIS P.A. & GREENWELL G.A. 1976: Successful hatching of a North Island brown kiwi at the National Zoo, Washington. Int. Zoo Yearb. 16: 86-88.
39. DUMBLETON L.J. 1953: The ticks (Ixodoidea) of the New Zealand sub- region. NZ Cape Exp. Ser. Bull. 14: 1-28.
40. DUWARD A. 1932: Observations on the cell masses in the cerebral hemisphere of the kiwi. J. Anat. 66: 437-477.
41. FARNER D.S. 1956: The body temperatures of the North Island kiwis. Emu 56: 199-206.
42. FORBES B.A. 1881: On the conformation of the thoracic end of the trachea in the "ratite" birds. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1881:778-788.
43. GAUD J. & ATYEO W.T. 1970: Acariens sarcoptiformes plumicoles (Analgoidea) parasites des Apterygiformes. Acarologia 12: 402-414.
44. GAUD J. & LAURENCE B.R. 1981: Suprenant polymorphisme des formes immatures chez l'acarien plumicole Kiwialges palametrichus (Astigmata, Analgidae). Acarologia 22: 209-215.
45. GLENNY F.H. 1942: Arteries in the heart region of the kiwi. Auk 59: 225-228.
46. GOULD J. 1847: On a new species of Apteryx. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1847: 93-94.
47. GRANT A. 2001. DNA sexing of brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) from feather samples. DOC Science Internal Series 13, Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand, 16 pp.
48. GURR L. 1952: Some food of the North Island kiwi (Apteryx australis). Notornis 4: 209-10.
49. HARRIS E.A. 1975: Two new nematodes parasitic in the kiwi in New Zealand. Bull. Br. Mus. (Nat Hist - Zool.) 28: 199-205.
50. HEATH A.C.G. 1977: Zoogeography of the New Zealand tick fauna. Tuatara 23: 26-38.
51. HERBERT J. & DAUGHERTY C.H. 2002: Genetic variation, systematics and management of kiwi. In: Overmars F. (ed.), Some early 1990s studies in kiwi (Apteryx spp.) genetics and management. Science & Research Internal Report 191, Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand: 11-34.
52. HILL F.I., WOODGYER A.J. & LINTOTT M.A. 1995: Cryptococcosis in a North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) in New Zealand. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 33: 305-309.
53. HITCHMOUGH R. 2002: New Zealand threat classification system list. Threatened Species Occasional Publication 23. Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand.
54. HOUDE P. 1986: Ostrich ancestors in the Northern Hemisphere suggest a new hypothesis of ratite origins. Nature 324: 563-565.
55. HOWLAND H.C., HOWLAND M. & SCHMID K.L. 1992: Focusing and accommodation in the brown kiwi (Apteryx australis). J. Comp. Physiol A 170: 687-689.
56. HUXLEY, T.H. 1882: On the respiratory organs of Apteryx. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1882: 560-569.
57. JAKOB-HOFF R. 2001: Establishing a health profile for the North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli). Proc. Vet. Cons. Biol.: Wildlife Health Management in Australasia, 2-6th July, 2001 Taronga Zoo, Sydney Australia: 135-139.
58. JAMES B. 2001: Evaluation of kiwi advocacy programmes in Northland and Coromandel. Science for conservation: 161, Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand, 51 pp.
59. JENKINS C.A. & POTTER M.A. 2001: Determining the olfactory ability of Northern brown kiwi, Apteryx mantelli. Proc. Aust. Ornithol. Conf., Charles Sturt University, Bathurst, Australia: 34-35.
60. JOLLY J.N. 1989: A field study of the breeding biology of the little spotted kiwi (Apteryx owenii) with emphasis on the causes of nest failures. J. Roy Soc NZ 19: 433-448.
61. JOLLY J.N. & DAUGHERTY C.H. 2002: Comparison of little spotted kiwi (Apteryx owenii) from Kapiti and D'Urville Islands. In: Overmars F. (ed.), Some early 1990s studies in kiwi (Apteryx spp.) genetics and management. Science & Research Internal Report 191, Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand: 57-64.
62. KINSKY F.C. 1971: The consistent presence of paired ovaries in the kiwi (Apteryx) with some discussion of this condition in other birds. J. Orn., Berl. 112: 334-357.
63. KIWI CAPTIVE MANAGEMENT ADVISORY COMMITTEE 2004: Captive management plan for kiwi: Apteryx mantelli, Apteryx rowi, Apteryx australis, Apteryx australis 'Haast', Apteryx haastii, Apteryx owenii. Threatened Species Occasional Publication 24. Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand, 42 pp.
64. KRABBE K.H. 1957: Sur une formation singuliére du cerveau chez un embryon de kiwi. L'encephale 52: 612-622.
65. LINT K.C. 1966: Notes on the care and nutrition of Mantell's kiwi at San Diego Zoo. Int. Zoo Yearb. 6: 95-96.
66. MATHEWS G.M. 1931: A list of the birds of Australasia (including New Zealand, Lord Howe and Norfolk Island and the Australasian Antarctic Quadrant). Taylor & Francis, London.
67. McLENNAN J.A. 1988: Breeding of North Island brown kiwi, Apteryx australis mantelli, in Hawke's Bay, New Zealand. NZ J. Ecol. 11:89-97.
68. McLENNAN J.A., DEW L., MILES J., GILLINGHAM N. & WAIWAI R. 2004: Size matters: predation risk and juvenile growth in North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). NZ J. Ecol. 28: 241-250.
69. McLENNAN J. & McCANN T. 1991: Incubation temperatures of great spotted kiwi, Apteryx haastii. NZ J. Ecol. 15: 163-166.
70. McLENNAN J. & McCANN T. 2002: Genetic variability, distribution and abundance of great spotted kiwi (Apteryx haastii). In: Overmars F. (ed.), Some early 1990s studies in kiwi (Apteryx spp.) genetics and management. Science & Research Internal Report 191, Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand: 35-56.
71. McLENNAN J.A. & POTTER M.A. 1992. Distibution, population changes and management of brown kiwi in Hawke's Bay. NZ J. Ecol. 16: 91-102.
72. McLENNAN J.A., RUDGE M. & POTTER M.A. 1987: Range size and denning behaviour of brown kiwi, Apteryx australis mantelli, in Hawke's Bay, New Zealand. NZ J. Ecol. 10: 97-107.
73. McLENNAN J.A., POTTER M.A., ROBERTSON H.A., WAKE G.C., COLBOURNE R., DEW L., JOYCE L., McCANN A.J., MILES J., MILLER P.J. & REID J. 1996: Role of predation in the decline of kiwi, Apteryx spp., in New Zealand. NZ J. Ecol 20: 27-35.
74. McGOWAN C. 1979: The hind limb musculature of the Brown Kiwi, Apteryx australis mantelli. J. Morphol. 160: 33-74.
75. McGOWAN C. 1982: The wing musculature of the Brown Kiwi, Apteryx australis mantelli and its bearing on ratite affinities. J. Zool. 197: 173-219.
76. McNAB B.K. 1994: Resource use and the survival of terrestrial and freshwater vertebrates on oceanic islands. Am. Nat. 144: 643-660.
77. McNAB B. 1996: Metabolism and temperature regulation of kiwis (Apterygidae). Auk 113: 687-692.
78. MILES J.R.G., POTTER M.A. & FORDHAM R.A. 1997: Northern brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) in Tongariro National Park and Tongariro Forest - ecology and threats. Science for conservation: 51, Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand, 23 pp.
79. MIVART S.G. 1877: On the axial skeleton of the Struthionidae. Trans. Zool. Soc. London 10: 1-52.
80. OSUGA D.T. & FEENY R.E. 1968: Biochemistry of the egg-white protein of the ratite group. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 124: 560-574.
81. OWEN R. 1841: On the anatomy of the Southern Apteryx (Apteryx australis, Shaw). Trans. Zool. Soc. London 2: 257-301.
82. OWEN R. 1842: Monograph on Apteryx australis, including myology. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1842: 22-41.
83. OWEN R. 1849: XI. On the anatomy of the Apteryx australis Shaw, part II (Myology). Trans. Zool. Soc. London. III, Part 4: 277-301.
84. OWEN R. 1879: Memoirs on the Extinct Wingless Birds of New Zealand. Van Voorst, London, UK.
85. PALMA R.L. 1991: A new species of Rallicola (Insecta: Phthiraptera: Philopteridae) from the North Island brown kiwi. J. Roy. Soc. NZ 21: 313-322.
86. PALMA R.L. & PRICE R.D. 2004: Apterygon okarito, a new species of chewing louse (lnsecta : Phthiraptera : Menoponidae) from the Okarito brown kiwi (Aves: Apterygiformes: Apterygidae) NZ J. Zool. 31: 67-73.
87. PARKER T.J. 1891: Observations on the anatomy and development of Apteryx. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 182: 25-134.
88. PARKER T.J. 1892: Additional observations on development of Apteryx. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. 183: 73-84.
89. PEIRCE M.A., JAKOB-HOFF R.M. & TWENTYMAN C. 2003: New species of haematozoa from Apterygidae in New Zealand. J. Nat. Hist. 37: 1797-1804.
90. PIERCE R. J. & WESTBROOKE I.M. 2003: Call count responses of North Island brown kiwi to different levels of predator control in Northland, New Zealand. Biol. Cons. 109: 175-180.
91. POTTS T.H. 1871: Notes on a new species of Apteryx (A. haastii, Potts). Trans. Proc. NZ Inst. 4: 204-205.
92. POTTS T.H. 1872: On the birds of New Zealand. Part III. Trans. Proc. NZ Inst. 5: 171-205.
93. POTTER M. 1989: Ecology and reproductive biology of the North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli). Ph.D. thesis, Massey Univ., Palmerston North, New Zealand.
94. POTTER M.A. & BASSETT S.M. 2001: Embryo mortality in naturally and artificially incubated kiwi eggs. Proc. Aust. Ornithol. Conf., Charles Sturt University, Bathurst, Australia: 60.
95. POTTER M.A. & COCKREM J.F. 1992: Plasma levels of sex steroids in the North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) in relation to time of year and stages of breeding. Gen. Comp. Endocrin. 87: 416-424.
96. POTTER M.A., FORDHAM R.A. & MCLENNAN J.A. 1996: Reproductive biology of the kiwi. In: Deeming D.C. (ed.), Improving our Understanding of Ratites in a Farming Environment. Ratite Conference: Oxfordshire, UK: 161-162.
97. PRAGER E.M., WILSON A.C. & ARNHEIM N. 1974: Widespread distribution of lysozyme g in egg white of birds. J. Biol. Chem. 249: 7295-7297.
98. PRINZINGER R. & DIETZ V. 2002: Pre- and post natal energetics of the North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). Comp. Bioch. Physiol. 131A: 725-732.
99. PYCRAFT W.P. 1901: Part II. On the morphology and phylogeny of the Palaeognathae (Ratitae and Crypturi) and Neognathae (Carinatae). Trans. Zool. Soc. London 15: 149-290.
100. REID B. 1971: The weight of the kiwi and its egg. Notornis 18: 245-249.
101. REID B. 1972: North Island brown kiwi: Apteryx autralis mantelli. Measurements and weight of a young chick. Notornis 19: 261-266.
102. REID B. 1981: Size discrepancy between eggs of wild and captive brown kiwi. Notornis 28: 281-287.
103. REID B., ORDISH R.G. & HARRISON M. 1982: An analysis of the gizzard contents of 50 North Island brown kiwis, Apteryx australis mantelli, and notes on feeding observations. NZ J. Ecol. 5: 76-85.
104. REID B. & WILLIAMS G.R. 1975: The kiwi. In: Kuschel G. (ed.), Biogeography and ecology in New Zealand. Junk, The Hague: 301-330.
105. ROBERTSON H.A. 2003: Kiwi (Apteryx spp.) recovery plan 1996-2006. Threatened Species Recovery Plan 50. Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand, 26 pp.
106. ROBERTSON H. 2004: Research and monitoring plan for the kiwi sanctuaries. Science for conservation: 241, Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand, 24 pp.
107. ROBERTSON H. & COLBOURNE R. 2003: Kiwi (Apteryx spp.) Best Practice Manual. Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand, 135 pp.
108. ROBERTSON H.A., COLBOURNE R.M., GRAHAM P.J., MILLER P.J. & PIERCE R.J. 1999: Survival of brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) exposed to brodifacoum poison in Northland. NZ J. Ecol. 23: 225-231.
109. ROTHSCHILD W. 1893: Bulletin of the British Ornithological Club 1: 61.
110. ROTHSCHILD W. 1899: The genus Apteryx. Novitates Zoologicae 6: 361-402.
111. ROWE B. 1978: Incubation temperatures of the North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli). Notornis 25: 213-217.
112. SAIFF E.I. 1982: The middle ear of the skull of the kiwi. Emu 82: 75-79.
113. SHARPE R.B. 1888: On Apteryx bulleri. Trans. Proc. NZ Inst. 21: 224-225.
114. SHAW G.A. & NODDER F.P. 1813: The Naturalist's Miscellany 24, pl. 1057.
115. SHORLAND F.B. & GASS J.P. 1961: Fatty acid composition of the depot fats of the kiwi. J. Sci. Food Agric. 3: 174-177.
116. SIVAK J.G. & HOWLAND H.C. 1987: Refractive state of the eye of the brown kiwi (Apteryx australis). Can. J. Zool 65: 2833-2835.
117. SMITH B.L., POOLE W.H.S. & MARTINOVICH D. 1973: Pneumoconiosis in the captive New Zealand kiwi. Vet. Pathol. 10: 94-101.
118. SMIT F.G.A.M. 1979: The fleas of New Zealand (Siphonaptera). J. Roy. Soc. NZ 9: 143-232.
119. STRONG R.W. 1911: On the olfactory organs and the sense of smell in birds. J. Morphol. 22: 619-661.
120. STURMER A.T. & GRANT A. D. 1988: Female kiwis incubating. Notornis 35: 193-195.
121. TABORSKY M. 1988: Kiwis and dog predation: Observations in Waitangi State Forest. Notornis 35: 197-202.
122. TABORSKY M. 1988b: Kiwis and dog predation: Observations in Waitangi State Forest. Notornis 35: 197-202.
123. TABORSKY M. 1994: Reproductive energetics of brown kiwi, Apteryx australis. J. Orn. 135: Sonderheft. 107.
124. TABORSKY B. & TABORSKY M. 1991: Social organization of North Island Brown Kiwi: Long-term pairs and three types of male spacing behaviour. Ethology 89: 47-62.
125. TABORSKY B. & TABORSKY M. 1992: Spatial organization of the North Island Brown Kiwi Apteryx australis mantelli: Sex, pairing status and territoriality. Ibis 134: 1-10.
126. TABORSKY M. & TABORSKY B. 1993: The kiwi's parental burden. Nat. Hist. 12/93: 50-57.
127. TABORSKY B. & TABORSKY M. 1995: Habitat use and selectivity by the Brown Kiwi Apteryx australis mantelli in a patchy environment. Auk 112: 680-689.
128. TABORSKY B. & TABORSKY M. 1999: The mating system and stability of pairs in kiwi Apteryx spp. J. Avian. Biol. 30: 143 151.
129. TANDAN B.K. 1972: The species of Apterygon (Insecta: Phthiraptera: Amblycera) parasitic on kiwis (Apteryx). NZ J. Sci. 15: 52-69.
130. THOMPSON E.J. & WRIGHT I.G.A. 1978: Coccidiosis in kiwis. NZ Vet. J. 26: 167.
131. VANDEN BERGE J. 1982: Notes on the mycology of the pelvic limb in kiwi (Apteryx) and in other birds. Auk 99: 309-315.
132. WALLS G.L. 1942: The vertebrate eye and its adaptive radiation. Cranbrook Institute of Science, Bloomfield Hills, MI, USA.
133. WATT J.C. 1971: The North Island kiwi: a predator of pasture insects. NZ Entomol. 5: 25-27..
134. WENZEL B.M. 1968: Olfactory process in the kiwi. Nature 220: 1133-1134.
135. WENZEL B.M. 1971: Olfactory sensation in the kiwi and other birds. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 188: 183-193.