Risk factors for acute leukemia in children: A review

Environmental Health Perspectives

Volumn 115, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 138-145

  Belson, Martin ^a   Kingsley, Beverely ^a   Holmes, Andrianne ^a  

^a NATIONAL CENTER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

ALL; AML; Children; Environment; Leukemia; Risk factors

Indexed keywords

1,3 BUTADIENE; ALCOHOL; BENZENE; BENZO[A]PYRENE; CANNABIS; CIGARETTE SMOKE; CYTOCHROME P450 1A1; DIOXIN; HYDROCARBON; ILLICIT DRUG; INSECTICIDE; MIXED LINEAGE LEUKEMIA PROTEIN; PAINT; PESTICIDE; PLASTIC; REDUCED NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE DEHYDROGENASE (QUINONE); SOLVENT; TETRACHLOROETHYLENE; TRICHLOROETHYLENE;

ACUTE GRANULOCYTIC LEUKEMIA; ACUTE LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; CANCER INCIDENCE; CANCER RISK; CARCINOGENICITY; CHEMICAL CARCINOGENESIS; CHILDHOOD LEUKEMIA; CIGARETTE SMOKING; DEMOGRAPHY; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; HARM REDUCTION; HEREDITY; HUMAN; IONIZING RADIATION; LEUKEMOGENESIS; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RADIATION CARCINOGENESIS; RADIATION EXPOSURE; RADIOGRAPHY; RADIOTHERAPY; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; VIRUS CARCINOGENESIS;

CHILD; COMMUNICABLE DISEASES; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; LEUKEMIA, LYMPHOCYTIC, ACUTE; LEUKEMIA, MYELOCYTIC, ACUTE; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 33845982216     PISSN: 00916765     EISSN: 15529924     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1289/ehp.9023     Document Type: Review

References (145)

1. Ahlbom A, Day N, Feychting M, Roman E, Skinner, J, Dockerty J, et al. 2000. A pooled analysis of magnetic fields and childhood leukaemia. Br J Cancer 83:692-698.
2. Alexander FE, Chan LC, Lam TH, Yuen P, Leung NK, Ha SY, et al. 1997. Clustering of childhood leukaemia in Hong Kong: association with the childhood peak and common acute lymphoblastic leukaemia and with population mixing. Br J Cancer 75:457-463.
3. Alexander FE, Patheal SL, Biondi A, Brandalise S, Cabrera ME, Chan LC, et al. 2001. Transplacental chemical exposure and risk of infant leukemia with MLL gene fusion. Cancer Research 61:2542-2546.
4. Bhatia S. 2004. Influence of race and socioeconomic status on outcome of children treated for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Curr Opin Pediatr 16:9-14.
5. Bleyer A, Sposto R, Sather H. 1998. In the United States, pediatric brain tumors and other nervous system tumors are now more common than childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and have a 3-fold greater national mortality rate than ALL [Abstract]. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 17:389a.
6. Boice J. 1996. Cancer following irradiation in childhood and adolescence. Med Pediatr Onc (suppl)1:29-34.
7. Boice J, Miller R. 1999. Childhood and adult cancer after intrauterine exposure to ionizing radiation. Teratology 59:227-233.
8. Boutou O, Guizard A-V, Slama R, Pottier D, Spira A. 2002. Population mixing and leukaemia in young people around the La Hague nuclear waste reprocessing plant. Br J Cancer 87:740-745.
9. Bowman JD, Thomas DC. 2001. Re: "Are children living near high-voltage power lines at increased risk of acute lymphoblastic leukemia?" Am J Epidemiol 153:615-617.
10. Brain JD, Kavet R, McCormick DL, Poole C, Silverman LB, Smith TJ, et al. 2003. Childhood leukemia: electric and magnetic fields (EMF) as possible risk factors. Environ Health Perspect 111:962-970.
11. Brondum J, Shu XO, Steinbuch M, Severson RK, Potter JD, Robison LL. 1999. Parental cigarette smoking and the risk of acute leukemia in children. Cancer 85:1380-1388.
12. Buckley JD, Robison LL, Swotinsky R, Garabrant DH, LeBeau M, Manchester P, et al. 1989. Occupational exposures of parents of children with acute nonlymphoblastic leukemia: a report from the Children's Cancer Study Group. Cancer Res 49:4030-4037.
13. Canalle R, Burim RV, Tone LG, Takahashi CS. 2004. Genetic polymorphisms and susceptibility to childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Environ Mol Mutagen 43:100-109.
14. Clarkson B, Boyse EA. 1971. Possible explanation of high concordance for acute leukemia in monozygous twins. Lancet 1:699-701.
15. Daniels JL, Olshan AF, Savitz DA. 1997. Pesticides and childhood cancers. Environ Health Perspect 105:1068-1077.
16. Darby SC, Doll R, Gill SK, Smith PG. 1987. Long term mortality after a single treatment course with X-rays in patients treated for ankylosing spondylitis. Br J Cancer 55:179-190.
17. Davies A, Modan B, Djaldetti M, deVries A. 1961. Epidemiological observations on leukemia in Israel. Arch Intern Med 108:86-90.
18. Dockerty JD, Draper G, Vincent T, Rowan SD, Bunch KJ. 2001. Case-control study of parental age, parity and socioeconomic level in relationship to childhood cancers. Int J Epidemiol 30:1428-1437.
19. Doll R, Evans HJ, Darby SC. 1994. Paternal exposure not to blame. Nature 367:678-680.
20. Doll R, Wakeford R. 1997. Risk of childhood cancer from fetal irradiation. Br J Radiol 70:130-139.
21. Dordelmann M, Schrappe M, Reter A, Zimmerman M, Graf N, Schott G, et al. 1998. Down's syndrome in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: clinical characteristics and and treatment outcome in four consecutive BFM trials, Berlin-Frankfurt-Munster Group. Leukemia 12:645-651.
22. Draper GJ, Heaf MM, Kinnier Wilson LM. 1977. Occurrence of childhood cancers among sibs and estimation of familial risks. J Med Genet 14:81-90.
23. Draper GJ, Stiller CA, Cartwright RA, Craft AW, Vincent TJ. 1993. Cancer in Cumbria and in the vicinity of the Sellafield nuclear installation, 1963-1990. BMJ 306:89-94.
24. Feltbower RG, Pearce MS, Dickinson HO, Parker L, McKinney PA. 2001. Seasonality of birth for cancer in Northern England, UK. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 15:338-345.
25. Freedman MD, Stewart P, Kleinerman RA, Wacholder S, Hatch EE, Tarone RE, et al. 2001. Household solvent exposures and childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Am J Public Health 91:564-567.
26. Gale KB, Ford AM, Repp R, Borkhardt A, Keller C, Eden OB, et al. 1997. Backtracking leukemia to birth: identification of clonotypic gene fusion sequences in neonatal blood spots. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:13950-13954.
27. Gardner MJ. 1991. Father's occupational exposure to radiation and the raised level of childhood leukemia near the Sellafield Nuclear Plant. Environ Health Perspect 94:5-7.
28. Gardner MJ, Snee MP, Hall AJ, Powell CA, Downes S, Terrell JD. 1990. Results of case-control study of leukemia and lymphoma among young people near Sellafield nuclear plant in West Cumbria. BMJ 300:423-429.
29. Gilman EA, Knox EG. 1998. Geographical distribution of birth places of children with cancer in the UK. Br J Cancer 77: 842-849.
30. Glass DC. 2003. Leukemia risk associated with low-level benzene exposure. Epidemiology 14:569-577.
31. Greaves MF. 2002. Childhood leukemia. BMJ 324:283-287.
32. Greaves MF, Alexander FE. 1993. An infectious etiology for common acute lymphoblastic leukemia in childhood? Leukemia 7(3):349-360.
33. Greaves MF, Maia AT, Wiemels JL, Ford AM. 2003. Leukemia in twins: lessons in natural history. Blood 102:2321-2333.
34. Greenland S, Sheppard AR, Kaune WT, Poole C, Kelsh MA. 2000. A pooled analysis of magnetic fields, wire codes, and childhood leukemia, Childhood-EMF Study Group. Epidemiology 11:624-634.
35. Greenlee RT, Murray T, Bolden S, Wingo PA. 2000. Cancer statistics 2000. CA Cancer J Clin 50:7-34.
36. Gross L. 1978. Viral etiology of cancer and leukemia: a look into the past, present and future. Cancer Res 38:485-493.
37. Grossman J. 1995. What's hiding under the sink: dangers of household pesticides. Environ Health Perspect 103:550-554.
38. Gurney JG, Severson RK, Davis S, Robison LL. 1995. Incidence of cancer in children in the United States, sex, race, and 1-year age-specific rates by histologic type. Cancer 75:2186-2195.
39. Hardell L, Holmberg B, Malker H, Paulsson LE. 1995. Exposure to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields and the risk of malignant disease - an evaluation of epidemiological and experimental findings. Eur J Cancer Prev 4(suppl 1):3-107.
40. Hatch EE, Linet MS, Kleinerman RA, Tarone RE, Severson RK, Hartsock CT, et al. 1998. Association between childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia and use of electrical appliances during pregnancy and childhood. Epidemiology 9:234-245.
41. Heath CW Jr, Moloney WC. 1965. Familial leukemia: five cases of acute leukemia in three generations. N Engl J Med 272:882-887.
42. Higgins CD, dos-Santos-Silva I, Stiller CA, Swerdlow AJ. 2001. Season of birth and diagnosis of children with leukaemia: an analysis of over 15000 UK cases occurring from 1953-95. Br J Cancer 84:406-412.
43. Hjalmars U, Kulldorff M, Gustafsson G. 1994. Risk of acute childhood leukemia in Sweden after the Chernobyl reactor accident. BMJ 309:154-157.
44. Infante-Rivard C, Guiguet M. 2004. Family history of hematopoietic and other cancers in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer Detect Prev 28:83-87.
45. Infante-Rivard C, Jacques L. 2000. Empirical study of parental recall bias. Am J Epidemiol 152:480-486.
46. Infante-Rivard C, Labuda D, Krajinovic M, Sinnett D. 1999. Risk of childhood leukemia associated with exposure to pesticides and with gene polymorphisms. Epidemiology 10:481-487.
47. Ji BT, Shu XO, Linet M, Xheng W, Wacholder S, Gao YT, et al. 1997. Paternal cigarette smoking and risk for childhood cancer among offspring of nonsmoking mothers. J Natl Cancer Inst 89:238-244.
48. Kalwinsky DK, Rivera G, Dahl GV, Roberson P, George S, Murphy SB, et al. 1985. Variation by race in presenting clinical and biologic features of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: implications for treatment outcome. Leuk Res 9:817-823.
49. Karimi M, Yarmohammadi H. 2003. Seasonal variations in the onset of childhood leukemia/lymphoma: April 1996 to March 2000, Shiraz, Iran. Hematol Oncol 21:51-55.
50. Kaye SA, Robison LL, Smithson WA, Gunderson P, King FL, Neglia JP. 1991. Maternal reproductive history and birth characteristics in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer 68:1351-1355.
51. Kersey JH, Sabad A, Gajl-Peczalska K, Hallgren HM, Yunis EJ, Nesbit ME. 1973. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells with T (thymus-derived) lymphocyte markers. Science 183: 1355-1356.
52. Kinlen LJ. 1988. Evidence for an infective cause of childhood leukaemia: comparison of a Scottish new town with nuclear reprocessing sites in Britain. Lancet 322(8624):1323-1327.
53. Kinlen LJ. 1995. Epidemiologic evidence for an infective basis in childhood leukaemia. Br J Cancer 71:1-5.
54. Kinlen LJ, Clarke K, Balkwill A. 1993. Paternal preconceptional radiation exposure in the nuclear industry and leukaemia and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in young people in Scotland. BMJ 306:1153-1158.
55. Kinlen LJ, Hudson C, Stiller LA. 1991. Contacts between adults as evidence for an infective origin of childhood leukemia: an explanation for the excess near nuclear establishments in West Berkshire? Br J Cancer 64:549-554.
56. Kleinerman RA, Kaune WT, Hatch EE, Wacholder S, Linet MS, Robison LL, et al. 2000. Are children living near high-voltage power lines at increased risk of acute lymphoblastic leukemia? Am J Epidemiol 151:512-515.
57. Knox EG. 2005. Childhood cancers and atmospheric carcinogens. J Epidemiol Community Health 59:101-105.
58. Koushik A, King WD, McLaughlin JR. 2001. An ecologic study of childhood and population mixing in Ontario, Canada. Cancer Causes Control 12:483-490.
59. Krajinovic M, Labuda D, Sinnett D. 2001. Childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: genetic determinants of susceptibility and disease outcome. Rev Environ Health 16:263-279.
60. Krajinovic M, Labuda D, Sinnett D. 2002. Glutathione S-transferase P1 genetic polymorphisms and susceptibility to childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Pharmacogenetics 12:655-658.
61. Leiss JK, Savitz DA. 1995. Home pesticide use and childhood cancer: a case-control study. Am J Public Health 85:249-252.
62. Linet MS, Hatch EE, Kleinerman RA, Robison LL, Kaune WT, Friedman DR, et al. 1997. Residential exposure to magnetic fields and acute lymphoblastic leukemia in children. N Engl J Med 337:1-7.
63. Linet MS, Ries LA, Smith MA, Tarone RE, Devesa SS. 1999. Cancer surveillance series: recent trends in childhood cancer incidence and mortality in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst 91:1051-1058.
64. Little MP. 1990. A comparison between the risk of childhood leukemia from parental exposure to radiation in the Sellafield work force and those displayed among the Japanese atomic bomb survivors. J Radiol Protection 10:185-198.
65. Lord BI. 1999. Transgenerational susceptibility to leukemia induction resulting from preconception, paternal irradiation. Int J Radiat Biol 75:801-810.
66. Lowengart RA. 1987. Childhood leukemia and parent's occupational and home exposures. J Natl Cancer Inst 79:39-46.
67. Lundell M, Holm LE. 1996. Mortality from leukemia after irradiation in infancy for skin hemangioma. Radiat Res 145:595-601.
68. Ma X, Buffler PA, Gunier RB, Dahl G, Smith MT, Reinier K, et al. 2002. Critical windows of exposure to household pesticides and risk of childhood leukemia. Environ Health Perspect 110:955-960.
69. Mahoney MC, Moysich KB, McCarthy Jr PL, McDonald RC, Stepanenko VF, Day RW, et al. 2004. The Chernobyl childhood leukemia study: background & lessons learned. Environ Health 3(1):12; doi:10.1186/1476-069X-3-12 [Online 7 December 2005].
70. Margolin JF, Steuber CP, Poplack DG. 2001. Acute lymphocytic leukemia. In: Principles and Practice of Pediatric Oncology (Pizzo PA, Poplack DG, eds). Philadelphia:JB Lippincott, 489-544.
71. McKinney PA, Alexander FE, Cartwright RA, Parker L. 1991. Parental occupations of children with leukemia in west Cumbria, north Humberside, and Gateshead. BMJ 302:681-687.
72. McLaughlin JR, King WD, Anderson TW, Clarke EA, Ashmore JP. 1993. Paternal radiation exposure and leukaemia in offspring: the Ontario case-control study. BMJ 307:959-966.
73. Meinert R, Kaletsch U, Kaatsch P, Schuz J, Michaelis J. 1999. Associations between childhood cancer and ionizing radiation: Results of a population-based case-control study in Germany. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 8:793-799.
74. Menegaux F, Baruchel A, Bertrand Y, Lescoeur B, Leverger G, Nelken B, et al. 2006. Household exposure to pesticides and risk of childhood acute leukaemia. Occup Environ Med 63: 131-134.
75. Michaelis J, Kaletsch U, Burkart W, Grosche B. 1997. Infant leukaemia after the Chernobyl accident [Letter]. Nature 387:246.
76. Miller RW. 1967. Persons with exceptionally high risk of leukemia. Cancer Res 27:2420-2423.
77. Miller RW. 1968. Relationship between cancer and congenital defects: an epidemiologic evaluation. J Natl Cancer Inst 40(5):1079-1085.
78. Moloney W. 1955. Leukemia in survivors of atomic bombing. N Engl J Med 253:88-90.
79. Moysich KB, Menezes RJ, Michalek AM. 2002. Chernobyl-related ionising radiation exposure and cancer risk: an epidemiological review. Lancet Oncol 3:269-279.
80. Murray R, Heckel P, Hempelmann L. 1959. Leukemia in children exposed to ionizing radiation. N Engl J Med 261:585-589.
81. Myers A, Cllyden A, Cartwright RA, Cartwright SC. 1990. Childhood cancer and overhead powerlines: a case-control study. Br J Cancer 62:1008-1014.
82. National Research Council. 1993. Pesticides in the Diet of Infants and Children. Washington, DC:National Academy Press.
83. Naumberg E, Bellocco R, Cnattingius S, Hall P, Boice JD Jr, Ekbom A. 2001. Intrauterine exposure to diagnostic x-rays and risk of childhood leukemia subtypes. Radiat Res 156:718-723.
84. Neel JV, Schull WJ, eds. 1991. The Children of Atomic Bomb Survivors. A Genetic Study. Washington, DC:National Academy Press.
85. Noshchenko AG, Moysich KB, Bondar A. 2001. Patterns of acute leukemia occurrence among children in the Chernobyl region. Int J Epidemiol 30:125-129.
86. Parkin DM, Cardis E, Masuyer E, Friedl HP, Hansluwka H Bobev D, et al. 1993. Childhood leukemia following the Chernobyl accident: the European Childhood Leukemia-Lymphoma Incidence Study (ECLIS). Eur J Cancer 29a:87-95.
87. Parkin DM, Clayton D, Black RJ, Masuyer E, Friedl HP, Ivanov E, et al. 1996. Childhood leukaemia in Europe after Chernobyl: 5 year follow-up. Br J Cancer 73:1006-1012.
88. Petridou E, Trichopoulos D, Dessypris N, Flytzani V, Haidas S, Kalmanti M, et al. 1996. Infant leukemia after in utero exposure to radiation from Chernobyl. Nature 382:303-304.
89. Pierce M, 1936. Childhood leukemia. J Pediatr 8:66-95.
90. Pinkel D. 1993 Ethnicity and survival in children acute lymphoid leukemia. Leukemia 7(suppl 2):S146-S147.
91. Pollock BH, DeBaun MR, Camitta BM, Shuster JJ, Ravindranath Y, Pullen DJ, et al. 2000. Racial differences in the survival of childhood B-precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a Pediatric Oncology Group study. J Clin Oncol 18:813-823.
92. Pui CH. 1997. Acute lymphocytic leukemia. Pediatr Clin North Am 44(4):831-846.
93. Pui CH. 2000. Acute lymphocytic leukemia in children. Curr Opin Oncol 12:3-12.
94. Pui CH, Sandlund JT, Pei D, Rivera GK, Howard SC, Ribeiro RC, et al. 2003. Results of therapy for acute lymphoblastic leukemia in black and white children. JAMA 290:2001-2007.
95. Reynolds P, Behren JV, Gunier RB, Goldberg DE, Hertz A, Harnly ME. 2002. Childhood cancer and agricultural pesticide use: an ecologic study in California. Environ Health Perspect 110:319-324.
96. Reynolds P, Behren JV, Gunier RB, Goldberg DE, Hertz A, Smith DF. 2003. Childhood cancer incidence rates and hazardous air pollutants in California: an exploratory analysis. Environ Health Perspect 111:663-668.
97. Ries LAG, Kosary CL, Hankey BF, Miller BA, Clegg L, Mariotto A, et al., eds. 1998. SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1973-1995. NIH Publ no 98-2789. Bethesda, MD:National Cancer Institute.
98. Rinsky RA. 1981. Leukemia in benzene workers. Am J Ind Med 2:217-245.
99. Rivard CE, Deadman JE. 2003. Maternal occupational exposure to extremely low frequency magnetic fields during pregnancy and childhood leukemia. Epidemiology 14:437-441.
100. Robison LL, Buckley JD, Daigle AE, Wells R, Benjamin D, Arthur DC, et al. 1989. Maternal drug use and risk of childhood non-lymphoblastic leukemia among offspring: an epidemiologic investigation implicating marijuana (a report from the Children's Cancer Study Group). Cancer 63:1904-1911.
101. Robison LL, Codd M, Gunderson P, Neglia JP, Smithson WA, King FL. 1987. Birth weight as a risk factor for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 4:63-72.
102. Robison LL, Neglia JP, 1987. Epidemiology of Down syndrome and childhood acute leukemia. Prog Clin Biol Res 246:19-32.
103. Roman E, Watson A, Beral V, Buckle S, Bull D, Baker K, et al. 1993. Case-control study of leukemia and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma among children aged 0-4 years living in west Berkshire and north Hampshire health districts. BMJ 306:615-621.
104. Ron E. 1998. Ionizing radiation and cancer risk: evidence from epidemiology. Radiat Res 150:S30-S41.
105. Ron E, Modan B, Boice JD. 1988. Mortality after radiotherapy for ringworm of the scalp. Am J Epidemiol 127:713-725.
106. Ross JA, Davies SM, Potter JD, Robison LL. 1994. Epidemiology of childhood leukemia with a focus on infants. Epidemiol Rev 16:243-272.
107. Ross JA, Potter JD, Reaman GH, Pendergrass TW, Robison LL. 1996. Maternal exposure to potential inhibitors of DNA topoisomerase II and infant leukemia (United States): a report from the Children's Cancer Group. Cancer Causes Control 7:581-590.
108. Ross JA, Potter JD, Shu XO, Reaman GH, Lampkin B, Robison LL. 1997. Evaluating the relationship among maternal reproductive history, birth characteristics, and infant leukemia: a report from the Children's Cancer Group. Ann Epidemiol 7:172-179.
109. Ross JA, Severson RK, Swensen AR, Pollock BH, Gurney JG, Robison LL. 1999. Seasonal variation in the diagnosis of childhood cancer in the United States. Br J Cancer 81:549-553.
110. Rushton L, Romaniuk H. 1997. A case-control study to investigate the risk of leukemia associated with exposure to benzene in petroleum marketing and distribution workers in the United Kingdom. Occup Environ Med 54:152-166.
111. Sali D, Cardis, E, Sztanyik L, Auvinen A, Bairakova A, Dontas N, et al. 1996. Cancer consequences of the Chernobyl accident in Europe outside the former USSR: a review. Int J Cancer 67:343-352.
112. Sandler DP, Ross JA. 1997. Epidemiology of acute leukemia in children and adults. Semin Oncol 24:3-16.
113. Savitz DA, Chen J. 1990. Parental occupation and childhood cancer: review of epidemiologic studies. Environ Health Perspect 88:325-337.
114. Schnatter RA, Armstrong TW, Nicolich MJ, Thompson FS, Katz AM, Huebner, WW, et al. 1996. Lymphohaematopoietic malignancies and quantitative estimates of exposure to benzene in Canadian petroleum distribution workers. Occup Environ Med 53:773-781.
115. Schulz KF, Grimes DA. 2002. Case-control studies: research in reverse. Lancet 359:431-434.
116. Shearer P, Parham D, Kovnar E, Kun L, Rao B, Lobe T, et al. 1994. Neurofibromatosis type I and malignancy: review of 32 pediatric cases treated at a single institution. Med Pediatr Oncol 22:78-83.
117. Shu XO, Linet MS, Steinbuch M, Wen WQ, Buckley JD, Neglia JP, et al. 1999a. Breast feeding and risk of acute childhood leukemia. J Natl Cancer Inst 91(20):1765-1772.
118. Shu XO, Potter JD, Linet MS, Severson RK, Han D, Kersey JH, et al. 2002. Diagnostic x-rays and ultrasound exposure and risk of acute lymphoblastic leukemia by immunophenotype. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11:177-185.
119. Shu XO, Reaman GH, Lampkin B, Sather, HN, Pendergrass TW, Robison LL. 1994. Association of paternal diagnostic X-ray exposure with risk of infant leukemia. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 3:645-653.
120. Shu XO, Ross JA, Pendergrass TW, Reaman GH, Lampkin B, Robison LL. 1996. Parental alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, and risk of infant leukemia: a Children's Cancer Group study. J Natl Cancer Inst 88(1):24-31.
121. Shu XO, Stewart P, Wen WQ, Han D, Potter JD, Buckley JD, et al. 1999b. Parental occupational exposure to hydrocarbons and risk of acute lymphocytic leukemia in offspring. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 8:783-791.
122. Sorahan T, Lancashire R, Prior P, Stewart A. 1995. Childhood cancer and parental use of alcohol and tobacco. Ann Epidemiol 5:354-359.
123. Spector LG, Xie Y, Robison LL, Heerema, NA, Hilden JM, Lange B, et al. 2005. Maternal diet and infant leukemia: the DNA topoisomerase II inhibitor hypothesis: a report from the children's oncology group. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 14:651-655.
124. Steiner M, Burkart W, Grosche B, Kaletsch U, Michaelis J. 1998. Trends in infant leukemia in West Germany in relationship to in utero exposure due to Chernobyl accident. Radiat Environ Biophys 37:87-93.
125. Stewart A, Webb K, Giles D. 1956. Malignant disease in childhood and diagnostic irradiation in utero [Letter]. Lancet 2:447.
126. Swensen AR, Ross JA, Severson RK, Pollock BH, Robison LL. 1997. The age peak in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: exploring the potential relationship with socioeconomic status. Cancer 79(10):2045-2051.
127. Swift M. 1971. Fanconi's anemia in the genetics of neoplasia. Nature 230:370-373.
128. Toledano S, Lange B. 1980. Ataxia-telangiectasia and acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer 45:1675-1678.
129. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. 1994. Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation. New York:United Nations.
130. Urquhart JD, Black RJ, Muirhead MJ, Sharp L, Maxwell M, Eden OB, et al. 1991. Case-control study of leukaemia and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in children in Caithness near the Dounreay nuclear installation. BMJ 302:687-692.
131. Van Duijn CM, Van Steensel-Moll HA, Coebergh JW, Van Zanen GE. 1994. Risk factors for childhood acute non-lymphocytic leukemia: an association with maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy? Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prevent 3:457-460
132. Van Steensel-Moll HA, Valkenbueg HA, Van Zanen GE. 1985. Childhood leukemia and parental occupation, a register-based case-control study. Am J Epidemiol 121:216-224.
133. Vianna NJ, Kovasznay B, Polan A, Ju C. 1984. Infant leukemia and paternal exposure to motor vehicle exhaust fumes. J Occup Med 26:679-682.
134. Watson GM. 1991. Leukaemia and paternal radiation exposure. Med J Aust 154:483-487.
135. Westerbeek RM, Blair V, Eden OB, Kelsey AM, Stevens RF, Will AM, et al. 1998. Seasonal variations in the onset of childhood leukaemia and lymphoma. Br J Cancer 78:119-124.
136. Westergaard T. 1997. Birth characteristics, sibling patterns, and acute leukemia risk in childhood: a population-based cohort study. J Natl Cancer Inst 89:939-947.
137. Wiemels JL, Leonard BC, Wang Y, Segal MR, Hunger SP, Smith MT, et al. 2002. Site-specific translocation and evidence of postnatal origin of the t(1;19) E2A-PBX1 fusion in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:15101-15106.
138. Willis A, Lindahl T. 1987. DNA ligase deficiency in Bloom's syndrome. Nature 325:355-357.
139. Woods WG, Roloff JS, Lukens JN, Krivit W. 1981. The occurrence of leukemia in patients with the Shwachman syndrome. J Pediatr 99:425-428.
140. Yeazel MW, Buckley JD, Woods WG, Ruccione K, Robison LL. 1995. History of maternal fetal loss and increased risk of childhood acute leukemia at an early age, a report from the Childrens Cancer Group. Cancer 75:17180-1727.
141. Yoshimoto Y, Kato H, Schull WJ. 1988. Risk of cancer among children exposed in utero to A-bomb radiations, 1950-84. Lancet 2:665-669.
142. Yoshimoto Y, Neel JV, Schull WJ. 1990. Malignant tumors during the first 2 decades of life in the offspring of atomic bomb survivors. Am J Hum Genet 46:1041-1052.
143. Zahm SH, Devesa SS. 1995. Childhood cancer: overview of incidence trends and environmental carcinogens. Environ Health Perspect 103:177-184.
144. Zahm SH, Ward MH. 1998. Pesticides and childhood cancer. Environ Health Perspect 106:893-908.
145. Zipf TF, Berg S, Roberts WM, Poplack DG, Steuber CP, Bleyer WA. 2000. Childhood leukemias. In: Clinical Oncology (Abeloff MD, Armitage JO, Lichter AS, Niederhuber JE, eds). 2nd ed. Philadelphia:Churchill Livingston, 2402-2429.