Behavioral genetics: The science of antisocial behavior

Law and Contemporary Problems

Volumn 69, Issue 1-2, 2006, Pages 7-46

  Baker, Laura A ^a   Bezdjian, Serena ^a   Raine, Adrian ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   (United States)

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EID: 33750051661     PISSN: 00239186     EISSN: 00239186     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (309)

1. See generally Robert Plomin et al., Behavioral Genetics 72-92 (4th ed. 2001) (reviewing basic structure of adoption and twin designs);
2. Laura A. Baker, Methods for Understanding Genetic and Environmental Influences in Normal and Abnormal Personality, in Differentiating Normal and Abnormal Personality (S. Strack ed., 2006) (in press) (reviewing the major classical genetic designs as well as their assumptions, strengths, and weaknesses).
3. Genes do not always act in a dominant or recessive fashion (such that one gene masks the effects of another gene). Instead, each gene at a given locus may contribute additively to the phenotype. Even when dominant genes are involved, however, additive effects can appear.
4. Quantitative traits are those that exist on a continuum, such as height, weight, extraversion, or general intelligence; qualitative traits are usually all or nothing phenomena such as disease status, eye color, criminal convictions. The term "complex" is often used synonymously with "quantitative."
5. See generally Pak Sham, Recent Developments in Quantitative Trait Loci Analysis, in Behavioral Genetics in the Postgenomic Era 41 (Robert Plomin et al. eds., 2003).
6. Id.
7. An "allele" is a variation of a particular gene at a given locus. "Genotype" refers to the combination of alleles at a given locus, or more generally to a combination of alleles at two or more loci.
8. See infra Part IV.B.
9. See Soo Hyun Rhee & Irwin D. Waldman, Genetic and Environmental Influences on Antisocial Behavior: A Meta-Analysis of Twin and Adoption Studies, 128 Psychol. Bull. 490, 491-92 (2002) (referencing example studies).
10. Id.
11. Id.
12. Id.
13. Id.
14. For example, official criminal records represent clear violations of legal norms, but they may be incomplete to the extent that undetected crimes may exist. Self-reported antisocial behavior may be used to assess a broader range of behaviors, including both detected and undetected criminal activity as well as less serious, noncriminal antisocial behavior, but such self-reports will be influenced by the respondent's dishonesty. Parental ratings of antisocial behavior in young children reflect perhaps the most intimate knowledge of the children's behavior (apart from that of the children themselves); however, parents may be unable to judge the child's motivations (such as whether aggressive behavior may be proactive or the result of provocation), and parents have limited observations of the child's behavior outside of the home. Teacher reports provide useful information about school-related behaviors, but these may also lack information about the child's motivations and may not adequately distinguish between victims and perpetrators during conflicts among children.
15. See Rhee & Waldman, supra note 8, at 515.
16. Id. at 514.
17. Id.
18. Id.
19. Id.
20. Id. at 512-14.
21. Id. at 512-13.
22. Id. at 512-14.
23. Id. at 495.
24. Laura A. Baker et al., Genetic and Environmental Bases of Antisocial Behavior in Children (unpublished manuscript, on file with Law and Contemporary Problems).
25. Id.
26. Id.
27. Id.
28. Id.
29. Compare Rhee & Waldman, supra note 8, at 516-17, 522.
30. See, e.g., Rhee & Waldman, supra note 8.
31. Id.
32. See, e.g., Donna R. Miles & Gregory Carey, Genetic and Environmental Architecture of Human Aggression, 72 J. Personality & Soc. Psychol. 207, 207 (1997).
33. See, e.g., Lisabeth Fisher Dilalla & Irving I. Gottesman, Heterogeneity of Causes for Delinquency and Criminality: Lifespan Perspectives, 1 Dev. & Psychopathology 339 (1990).
34. Rhee & Waldman, supra note 8, at 494.
35. Terrie E. Moffitt, Adolescence-Limited and Life-Course-Persistent Antisocial Behavior: A Developmental Taxonomy, 100 Psychol. Rev. 674 (1993).
36. See, e.g., Remi J. Cadoret et al., Genetic-Environmental Interaction in the Genesis of Aggressivity and Conduct Disorders, 52 Archives of Gen. Psychiatry 916 (1995).
37. See, e.g., Sören Sigvardsson et al., Predisposition to Petty Criminality in Swedish Adoptees: III. Sex Differences in Validation of the Male Typology, 39 Archives Gen. Psychiatry 1248 (1982).
38. See, e.g., Barry Hutchins & Sarnoff A. Mednick, Registered Criminality in the Adoptive and Biological Parents of Registered Male Criminal Adoptees, in Genetic Research in Psychiatry 105 (Ronald R. Fieve et al. eds., 1975).
39. See, e.g., S. Torgersen et al., The Psychometric-Genetic Structure of DSM-III-R Personality Disorder Criteria, 7 J. Personality Disorders 196 (1993).
40. See C. R. Cloninger & I. I. Gottesman, Genetic and Environmental Factors in Antisocial Behavior Disorders, in The Causes of Crime: New Biological Approaches 92, 96-100 (S. A. Mednick et al. eds., 1987).
41. Hutchins & Mednick, supra note 36, at 110;
42. Laura A. Baker et al., Sex Differences in Property Crime in a Danish Adoption Cohort 19 Behav. Genetics 355, 360 (1989).
43. Hutchins & Mednick, supra note 36.
44. James Q. Wilson & Richard J. Herrnstein, Crime and Human Nature 104-12 (1985);
45. cf. Janet S. Hyde, How Large Are Gender Differences in Aggression? A Developmental Analysis, 20 Developmental Psychol. 722 (1984) (discussing gender variation in aggression).
46. See Rhee & Waldman, supra note 8, at 494 (noting that genetic effects on antisocial behavior are equal between the sexes, but that genetic effects on aggression are not equal).
47. See Cloninger & Gottesman, supra note 38.
48. Rhee & Waldman, supra note 8.
49. Cloninger & Gottesman, supra note 38.
50. Baker et al., supra note 23.
51. Laura A. Baker & Adrian Raine, The Delinquency Interview for Children (DI-C): A Self-report Measure of Antisocial Behavior (2005) (unpublished manuscript, on file with Law and Contemporary Problems).
52. Id.
53. Id.
54. Adrian Raine et al., Biological Risk Factors for Antisocial and Criminal Behavior, in Crime and schizophrenia: Causes and Cures (Adrian Raine ed.) (forthcoming).
55. Baker & Raine, supra note 47.
56. Rhee & Waldman, supra note 8.
57. Baker & Raine, supra note 47.
58. See infra Part V.A.
59. William M. Grove et al., Heritability of Substance Abuse and Antisocial Behavior: A Study of Monozygotic Twins Reared Apart, 27 Biological Psychiatry 1293 (1990);
60. G. Carey, Multivariate Genetic Relationship Among Drug Abuse, Alcohol Abuse and Antisocial Personality, 3 Psychiatric Genetics 141 (Paper Presented at the Third World Congress on Psychiatric Genetics, 1993);
61. Michael J. Lyons et al., Differential Heritability of Adult and Juvenile Antisocial Traits, 3 Psychiatric Genetics 117 (Paper Presented at the Third World Congress on Psychiatric Genetics, 1993);
62. Michael J. Lyons, A Twin Study of Self-Reported Criminal Behaviour, in Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behavior 61 (Gregory R. Bock & Jamie A. Goode eds., 1996).
63. Cadoret et al., supra note 34;
64. Remi J. Cadoret et al., An Adoption Study of Genetic and Environmental Factors in Drug Abuse, 43 Archives Gen. Psychiatry 1131 (1986).
65. Lindon J. Eaves et al., Genetics and Developmental Psychopathology: 2. The Main Effects of Genes and Environment on Behavioral Problems in the Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development, 38 J. Child Psychol. & Psychiatry 965 (1997).
66. Remi J. Cadoret et al., Evidence for Gene-Environment Interaction in the Development of Adolescent Antisocial Behavior, 13 Behav. Genetics 301 (1983);
67. Cadoret et al., supra note 34.
68. Laura Baker, The Nature-Nurture Problem in Violence, in International Handbook of Violence Research 589 (Wilhelm Heitmeyer & John Hagan eds., 2003);
69. Michael J. Lyons et al., Differential Heritability of Adult and Juvenile Antisocial Traits, 52 Archive Gen. Psychiatry 906 (1995).
70. C. Robert Cloninger et al., Epidemiology and Axis I Comorbidity of Antisocial Personality, in Handbook of Antisocial Behavior 12 (David M. Stoff et al. eds., 1997).
71. Lee N. Robins, Deviant Children Grown Up: A Sociological and Psychiatric Study of Sociopathic Personality (1966).
72. See Lee N. Robins et al., Antisocial Personality, in Psychiatric Disorders in America: The Epidemilogic Catchment Area Study 258, 264 (Lee N. Robins & Darrel A Regier eds., 1991) (describing the common remission of the disorder as the individual advances into adulthood).
73. Id. at 259-60.
74. Id. at 260.
75. Id.
76. Marian B.M. van den Bree et al., Antisocial Personality and Drug Use Disorders - Are They Genetically Related?, in The Science, Treatment, and Prevention of Antisocial Behaviors: Application to the Criminal Justice System 8-1, 8-1 to 8-2 (Diane H. Fishbein ed., 2000).
77. Robins et al, supra note 62, at 271.
78. Cloninger & Gottesman, supra note 38.
79. Van den Bree et al., supra note 66, at 8-6.
80. Id.
81. Jane Scourfield et al., Conduct Problems in Children and Adolescents: A Twin Study, 61 Archives Gen. Psychiatry 489 (2004).
82. See also Jessie C. Anderson et al., DSM-III Disorders in Preadolescent Children, 44 Archives of Gen. Psychiatry 69 (1987);
83. Patricia Cohen et al., An Epidemiological Study of Disorders in Late Childhood and Adolescence - I. Age- and Gender-Specific Prevalence, 34 J. Child Psychol. & Psychiatry 851 (1993) (detailing studies of common childhood disorders which include conduct disorder).
84. American Psychological Ass'n, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 85(4th ed. 1994).
85. Heather L. Gelhorn et al., Genetic and Environmental Influences on Conduct Disorder: Symptom, Domain, and Full-Scale Analyses, 46 J. Child Psychol. & Psychiatry 580, 580 (2005).
86. Id.
87. Rolf Loeber, Antisocial Behavior: More Enduring than Changeable?, 30 J. Am. Acad. Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 393, 393 (1991).
88. See also Rolf Loeber, Development and Risk Factors of Juvenile Antisocial Behavior and Delinquency, 10 Clinical Psychol. Rev. 1 (1990);
89. Rolf Loeber, The Stability of Antisocial and Delinquent Child Behavior: A Review, 53 Child Dev. 1431 (1982) (detailing studies involving the development and stability of juvenile delinquency into adulthood).
90. Robins, supra note 61, at 141-42.
91. Mark Zoccolillo et al., The Outcome of Childhood Conduct Disorder: Implications for Defining Adult Personality Disorder and Conduct Disorder, 22 Psychol. Med. 971, 976 (1992).
92. See generally Benjamin B. Lahey & Rolf Loeber, Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder, Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Conduct disorder, and Adult Antisocial Behavior: A Life Span Perspective, in Handbook of Antisocial Behavior, supra note 60, at 51 (describing the developmental relationship between behavior disorders in childhood and the appearance of antisocial disorders in adulthood).
93. Lahey & Loeber, supra note 77, at 57
94. (citing Richard Harrington et al., Adult Outcomes of Childhood and Adolescent Depression: II. Links with Antisocial Disorders, 30 J. Am. Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 434 (1991)).
95. See ROBINS, supra note 61, at 163-66.
96. See, e.g., Lahey & Loeber, supra note 77.
97. Scourfield et al., supra note 71, at 489.
98. See Gelhorn et al., supra note 73;
99. Scourfield et al., supra note 71;
100. Anita Thapar et al., Examining the Comorbidity of ADHD-Related Behaviours and Conduct Problems Using a Twin Study Design, 179 Brit. J. Psychiatry 224 (2001);
101. Frederick L. Coolidge et al., Heritability and the Comorbidity of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder with Behavioral Disorders and Executive Function Deficits: A Preliminary Investigation, 17 Developmental Neuropsychology 273 (2000);
102. Eaves et al., supra note 57.
103. Gelhorn et al., supra note 73, at 588;
104. Thapar et al., supra note 82, at 226.
105. Cadoret et al., supra note 34.
106. Scourfield et al., supra note 71, at 494;
107. Eaves et al., supra note 57, at 973.
108. Emily Simonoff, Gene-Environment Interplay in Oppositional Defiant and Conduct Disorder, 10 Child & Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics N. Am. 351, 351 (2001).
109. Id.
110. Id., at 352.
111. Coolidge et al., supra note 82, at 282 tbl.4 (finding a heritability estimate of 0.61);
112. Eaves et al., supra note 57, at 974 tbl.3 (finding heritability of fourteen percent for girls as measured by their fathers' responses to questionnaires and heritability of sixty-five percent for boys as measured from interviews with their fathers).
113. David Goldman & Diana H. Fishbein, Genetic Bases for Impulsive and Antisocial Behaviors - Can Their Course Be Altered?, in The Science, Treatment, and Prevention of Antisocial Behaviors: Application to the Criminal Justice System, supra note 70, at 9-1, 9-2.
114. Emil F. Coccaro et al., Heritability of Irritable Impulsiveness: A Study of Twins Reared Together and Apart, 48 Psychiatry Res. 229, 237 (1993).
115. Goldman & Fishbein, supra note 89, at 9-6.
116. J. Phillipe Rushton et al., Altruism and Aggression: The Heritability of Individual Differences, 50 J. Personality & Soc. Psychol. 1192, 1194 (1986).
117. Auke Tellegen et al., Personality Similarity in Twins Reared Apart and Together, 54 J. Personality & Soc. Psychol. 1031, 1036 (1988).
118. Coccarro et al., supra note 90 at 234-35.
119. Goldman & Fishbein, supra note 89, at 9-6.
120. Coccarro et al., supra note 90 at 234-35.
121. See, e.g., Yoon-Mi Hur & Thomas J. Bouchard, Jr., The Genetic Correlation Between Impulsivity and Sensation Seeking Traits, 27 Behav. Genetics 455 (1997).
122. Goldman & Fishbein, supra note 89, at 9-2.
123. Russell A. Barkley, Genetics of Childhood Disorders: XVII. ADHD, Part 1: The Executive Functions and ADHD, 39 J. Am. Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 1064, 1064 (2000);
124. Anita Thapar et al., Genetic Basis of Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity, 174 Brit. J. Psychiatry 105, 105 (1999).
125. Thapar et al., supra note 99 at 105.
126. Hechtman, L., Weiss, G., & Perlman, T. Hyperactives as Young Adults: Past and Current Substance Abuse and Antisocial Behavior, 54 Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 415, 415-25 (1984);
127. or Satterfield, R., Rutter, M., & Schell, A. M., A Prospective Study of Delinquency in 110 Adolescent Boys with Attention Deficit Disorder and 88 Normal Adolescent Boys, 139 Am. J. Psychiatry, 795, 795-98 (1982).
128. See Benjamin Lahey & Rolf Loeber, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Conduct Disorder, and Adult Antisocial Behavior: A Life Span Perspective, in Handbook of Antisocial Behavior, supra note 60, at 51.
129. See Lahey & Loeber, supra note 102;
130. Offord et al., Delinquency and hyperactivity, J. Nervous & Mental Disease, 167, 734-41 (1979).
131. Jonna Kuntsi et al., Genetic Influences on the Stability of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms from Early to Middle Childhood, 57 Biological Psychiatry 647, 647 (2005).
132. Thapar et al., supra note 99, at 109;
133. Barkley, supra note 99.
134. Russell A. Barkley, ADHD and the Nature of Self-Control 37-41 (1997).
135. Thapar et al., supra note 99, at 106-09. Indeed, first-degree relatives of male probands were five times more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than relatives of the normal controls.
136. Edwin J.C.G. van den Oord et al., A Study of Problem Behaviors in 10- to 15-Year-Old Biologically Related and Unrelated International Adoptees, 24 Behav. Genetics 193, 201 (1994).
137. Robert Goodman & Jim Stevenson, A Twin Study of Hyperactivity - II. The Aetiological Role of Genes, Family Relationships and Perinatal Adversity, 30 J. Child Psychol. & Psychiatry 691 (1989);
138. Jim Stevenson, Evidence for a Genetic Etiology in Hyperactivity in Children, 22 Behav. Genetics 337, 342 (1992);
139. Jacquelyn J. Gillis et al., Attention Deficit Disorder in Reading-Disabled Twins: Evidence for a Genetic Etiology, 20 J. Abnormal Child Psychol. 303, 304 (1992);
140. Craig Edelbrock et al., A Twin Study of Competence and Problem Behavior in Childhood and Early Adolescence, 36 J. Child Psychol. & Psychiatry 775, 779 (1995);
141. Anita Thapar et al., Childhood Hyperactivity Scores Are Highly Heritable and Show Sibling Competition Effects: Twin Study Evidence, 25 Behav. Genetics 537, 539 (1995);
142. Eaves et al., supra note 57;
143. Florence Levy et al., Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Category or a Continuum? Genetic Analysis of a Large-Scale Twin Study, 36 J. Am. Acad. Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 737, 738 (1997);
144. Dianne K. Sherman et al., Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Dimensions: A Twin Study of Inattention and Impulsivity-Hyperactivity, 36 J. Am. Acad. Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 745, 746 (1997).
145. Thapar et al., supra note 99, at 107.
146. Stephen V. Faraone, Discussion of "Genetic Influence on Parent-Reported Attention-Related Problems in a Norwegian General Population Twin Sample," 35 J. Am. Acad. Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 596 (1996);
147. Helene Gjone et al., Changes in Heritability Across Increasing Levels of Behavior Problems in Young Twins, 26 Behav. Genetics 419 (1996);
148. Levy et al., supra note 109;
149. Rhee & Waldman, supra note 8;
150. Sherman et al., supra note 109;
151. Judy Silberg et al., Genetic and Environmental Influences on the Covariation Between Hyperactivity and Conduct Disturbance in Juvenile Twins, 37 J. Child Psychol. & Psychiatry 803 (1996);
152. Edwin J.C.G. van den Oord et al., A Genetic Study of Maternal and Paternal Ratings of Problem Behaviors in 3-Year-Old Twins, 105 J. Abnormal Psychol. 349 (1996).
153. Neilson Martin et al., Observer Effects and Heritability of Childhood Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms, 180 Brit. J. Psychiatry 260 (2002);
154. Thapar et al., supra note 82;
155. Farone, supra note 111;
156. Gjone et al., supra note 111;
157. Levy et al., supra note 109;
158. Soo Hyun Rhee et al., Sex Differences in Genetic and Environmental Influences on DSM-III-R Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD), 108 J. Abnormal Psychol. 24, 37-38 (1999);
159. Sherman et al., supra note 109;
160. Thapar et al., supra note 109;
161. Edwin J.C.G. van den Oord et al., supra note 111.
162. See, e.g., Levy et al., supra note 109;
163. Sherman et al., supra note 109;
164. Silberg et al., supra note 111.
165. Edwing J.G.C. van den Oord & David C. Rowe, Continuity and Change in Children's Social Maladjustment: A Developmental Behavior Genetic Study, 33 Developmental Psychol. 319, 329 (1997).
166. Barkley, supra note 99, at 40-41.
167. Silberg et al., supra note 111, at 809;
168. Alison Pike & Robert Plomin, Importance of Non-shared Environmental Factors for Childhood and Adolescent Psychopathology, 35 J. Am. Acad. Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 560 (1996).
169. See, e.g., Frederick L. Coolidge et al., Are Personality Disorders Psychological Manifestations of Executive Function Deficits? Bivariate Heritability Evidence from a Twin Study, 34 Behav. Genetics 75, 75-78 (2004).
170. Coolidge et al., supra note 82.
171. Bruce F. Pennington & Sally Ozonoff, Executive Functions and Developmental Psychopathology, 37 J. Child Psychol. & Psychiatry 51, 51 (1996).
172. See id. at 58-65.
173. Adrian Raine et al., Neurocognitive Impairments in Boys on the Life-Course Persistent Social Path, 114 J. Abnormal Psychol. 38 (2005).
174. Coolidge et al., supra note 117.
175. Id.
176. See Adrian Raine, The Psychopathology of Crime: Criminal Behavior as Clinical Disorder 215-16 (1993).
177. Coolidge et al., supra note 82, at 275;
178. See generally American Psychological Ass'n, supra note 72.
179. Coolidge et al., supra note 82, at 275.
180. Id.
181. Alcohol use is presumed to contribute to violence because of the pharmacological properties of the drug, as well as expectancies and societal norms surrounding these aspects. See generally Helene Raskin White, Alcohol, Illicit Drugs, and Violence, in Handbook of Antisocial Behavior, supra note 60, at 511.
182. White, supra note 128.
183. Id. at 512.
184. Brian M. Hicks et al., Family Transmission and Heritability of Externalizing Disorders: A Twin-Family Study, 61 Archives of Gen. Psychiatry 922, 922-23 (2004).
185. Id.
186. Kathleen R. Merikangas et al., Familial Transmission of Substance Use Disorders, 55 Archives Gen. Psychiatry 973 (1998).
187. Hicks et al., supra note 131, at 923;
188. Kenneth S. Kendler et al., The Structure of Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors for Common Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders in Men and Women, 60 Archives Gen. Psychiatry 929 (2003);
189. Robert F. Krueger et al., Etiologic Connections Among Substance Dependence, Antisocial Behavior, and Personality: Modeling the Externalizing Spectrum, 111 J. Abnormal Psychol. 411 (2002);
190. Kristen C. Jacobson et al., Sex Differences in the Genetic and Environmental Influences on the Development of Antisocial Behavior, 14 Dev. & Psychopathology 395 (2002).
191. Hicks et al., supra note 131, at 923;
192. Kendler et al., supra note 134;
193. Krueger et al., supra note 134;
194. Jacobson et al., supra note 134.
195. See, e.g., Hicks et al., supra note 131, at 923;
196. Kendler et al., supra note 134, at 929-30;
197. Krueger et al., supra note 134, at 411-13;
198. Jacobson et al., supra note 134.
199. See, e.g., Hicks et al., supra note 131, at 923.
200. Id. at 924-27.
201. David M. Evans et al., Biometrical Genetics, 61 Biological Psychol. 33, 45 (2002).
202. See generally Irving I. Gottesman & Todd D. Gould, The Endophenotype Concept in Psychiatry: Etymology and Strategic Intentions, 160 Am. J. Psychiatry 636 (2003).
203. D.S. Falconer & Trudy F.C. Mackay, Introduction to Quantitative Genetics, 312-13 (4th ed. 1996)
204. See supra Part III.D.
205. See, e.g., Randy Borum, Assessing Violence Risk Among Youth, 56 J. Clinical Psychol. 1263, 1267-72 (2000).
206. See Raine, supra note 124, at 40-46;
207. Klaus A. Miczek et al., An Overview of Biological Influences on Violent Behavior, in 2 Understanding and Preventing Violence: Biobehavioral Influences 1 (Albert J. Reis et al. eds., 1994);
208. Debra Niehoff, The Biology of Violence 106-11, 115-49, 153-87 (describing brain imaging studies of violent offenders and explaining the "circular" relationship between hormones and behavior and between neurotransmitters and behavior) (1999);
209. Laura A. Baker, Theories of Violence: Biology, in 3 Violence in America 307, 307 (Ronald Gottesman & Richard M. Brown eds., 1999).
210. See Raine, supra note 124, at 160-65 (referring to findings of lower skin conductance in those who have committed crimes of evasion, and pointing to two of eight studies that found antisocial individuals to have lower skin-conductance responsivity to aversive tones);
211. id. at 166 (referring to findings of lower resting heart rates for "younger noninstitutionalized" antisocial individuals, but not for "institutionalized, criminal psychopaths");
212. id. at 173 (referring to the "virtually no anticipatory [heart rate] response" found in non-psychopathic criminals);
213. id. at 185 (referring to findings of low heart rate, skin conductance, and response to novel stimuli in disinhibited children).
214. See David P. Farrington, The Relationship Between Low Resting Heart Rate and Violence, in Biosocial Bases of Violence 89 (Adrian Raine et al. eds., 1997).
215. H.J. Eysenck, Crime and Personality 80-104 (1977).
216. Raine et al., supra note 146, at 107-24.
217. Eysenck, supra note 147, at 80-104.
218. Andrew Crider et al., Stability, Consistency, and Heritability of Electrodermal Response Lability in Middle-Aged Male Twins, 41 Psychophysiology 501, 502 (2004).
219. See K.C. Jacobson et al., Abstract, Genetic Mediation of the Relationship between Arousal and Antisocial Behavior in Pre-Adolescent Twins, 35 Behav. Genetics 832a, 832a (2005).
220. Id.
221. See Borum, supra note 143, at 1271.
222. See Kim N. Dietrich et al., Early Exposure to Lead and Juvenile Delinquency, 23 Neurotoxicology & Teratology 511 (2001);
223. Herbert L. Needleman et al., Bone Lead Levels and Delinquent Behavior, 275 JAMA 363 (1996).
224. Goldman & Fishbein, supra note 89, at 9-4.
225. David E. Comings, The Role of Genetics in ADHD and Conduct Disorder - Relevance to the Treatment of Recidivist Antisocial Behavior, in The Science, Treatment, and prevention of Antisocial Behaviors: Application to the Criminal Justice System, supra note 70, at 16-1.
226. Todd M. Moore et al., A Meta-Analysis of Serotonin Metabolite 5-HIAA and Antisocial Behavior, 28 Aggressive Behav. 299 (2002).
227. Id. at 300.
228. Scott D. Lane & Don R Cherek, Biological and Behavioral Investigation of Aggression and Impulsivity, in The Science, Treatment, and Prevention of Antisocial Behaviors: Application to the Criminal Justice System, supra note 70, at 5-1.
229. Marie Åsberg et al, Psychobiology of Suicide, Impulsivity, and Related Phenomena, in Psychopharmacology: The Third Generation of Progress 655, 657-58 (Herbert Y. Meltzer ed., 1987);
230. Alex Roy et al., Serotonin in Suicide, Violence, and Alcoholism, in Serotonin in Major Psychiatric Disorders 185, 187-89 (Emil F. Coccaro & Dennis L. Murphy eds., 1990);
231. Matti Virkkunen et al., Relationship of Psychobiological Variables to Recidivism in Violent Offenders and Impulsive Fire Setters, 46 Archives Gen. Psychiatry 600, 600-01 (1989).
232. Goldman & Fishbein, supra note 89, at 9-9.
233. See also Oliver Cases et al., Aggressive Behavior and Altered Amounts of Brain Serotonin and Norepinephrine in Mice Lacking MAOA, 268 Science 1763 (1995).
234. 1DA denote serotonin receptor genes, which influence the function of serotonin. Some or most of these genes may have variants. Each gene receptor may be localized to a specific chromosome and perform a different and/or particular function.
235. 1B Receptor, 265 Science 1875 (1994).
236. Comings, supra note 156, at 16-9.
237. See also Matti Virkkunen et al., Serotonin in Alcoholic Violent Offenders, in Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behavior, supra note 55, at 168.
238. Id.
239. Id.
240. Id. at 16-9 to 16-10.
241. Richard A Glennon & Malgorzata Dukat, Serotonin Receptor Subtypes, in Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress 415, 421 (Floyd E. Bloom & David J. Kupfer eds., 1995).
242. Comings, supra note 156, at 16-10.
243. Id.;
244. see also P.S. Timiras et al., Lifetime Brain Serotonin: Regional Effects of Age and Precursor Availability, 5 Neurobiology of Aging 235, 236-37 (1984) (studying the effects of reducing serotonin by reducing the amount of its precursors, including tryptophan).
245. Comings, supra note 156, at 16-10.
246. Id.;
247. David E. Comings et al., Polygenic Inheritance of Tourette Syndrome, Stuttering, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity, Conduct, and Oppositional Defiant Disorder: The Additive and Subtractive Effect of the Three Dopaminergic Genes - DRD2, D H, and DATI, 67 Am. J. Med. Genetics 264 (1996).
248. Moore et al., supra note 157, at 313.
249. Id.
250. See, e.g., Petra Netter & Thomas Rammsayer, Reactivity to Dopaminergic Drugs and Aggression Related Personality Traits, 12 Personality & Individual Differences 1009 (1991);
251. Michael R. Spoont, Modulatory Role of Serotonin in Neural Information Processing: Implications for Human Psychopathology, 112 Psychol. Bull. 330 (1992).
252. Graham Rogeness et al., Neurochemistry and Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31 J. Am. Acad. Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 765, 775-77 (1992).
253. Mitchell E. Berman et al., Neurotransmitter Correlates of Human Aggression, in Handbook of Antisocial Behavior, supra note 60, at 305, 310.
254. See, e.g., Rhona Limson et al., Personality and Cerebrospinal Fluid Monoamine Metabolites in Alcoholics and Controls, 48 Archives Gen. Psychiatry 437, 439 (1991).
255. See Berman et al., supra note 177, at 305.
256. Comings, supra note 156, at 16-6.
257. Id.;
258. see also Comings et al., supra note 172 (examining the relationship between the gene variant to such disorders as Tourette's syndrome, stuttering, and ADHD).
259. Comings, supra note 156, at 16-6.
260. Id. at 16-6 to 16-7.
261. Id.
262. Id. at 16-11 to 16-12.
263. Id.
264. Berman et al., supra note 179, at 307.
265. Eric J. Devor et al., Association of Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) Activity with Alcoholism and Alcoholic Subtypes, 48 Am. J. Med. Genetics 209 (1993);
266. Anne-Liis Von Knorring et al., Platelet Monoamine Oxidase Activity in Type 1and Type 2 Alcoholism, 26 Alcohol & Alcoholism 409 (1991);
267. Walid O. Shekim et al., Platelet MAO Activity and Personality Variations in Normals, 27 Psychiatry Res. 81 (1989);
268. Monte S. Buchshaum et al., The Biochemical High-Risk Paradigm: Behavioral and Familial Correlates of Low Platelet Monoamine Oxidase Activity, 194 Science 339 (1976);
269. C.G. Gottfries et al., Lowered Monoamine Oxidase Activity in Brains from Alcoholic Suicides, 25 J. Neurochemistry 667 (1975).
270. See Comings, supra note 156, at 16-11 to 16-12.
271. J.C. Shih et al., Monoamine Oxidase: From Genes to Behavior, 22 Ann. Rev. Neuroscience 197, 210 (1999).
272. H.G. Brunner et al., Abnormal Behavior Associated with a Point Mutation in the Structural Gene for Monoamine Oxidase A, 262 Science 578 (1993).
273. This is a statistical interaction, which is distinct from the general notion that both genes and environment may combine together to produce phenotypic outcomes.
274. Sarnoff A. Mednick et al., Genetic Influences in Criminal Convictions: Evidence from an Adoption Cohort, 224 Science 891 (1984).
275. Id.
276. Id.
277. Id.
278. See Cloninger & Gottesman, supra note 38.
279. See Cadoret et al., supra note 58.
280. See Brunner et al., supra note 191.
281. Shih et al., supra note 190.
282. See Caspi et al., Role of Genotype in the Cycle of Violence in Maltreated Children, 297 Science 851(2002).
283. See, e.g., Michael Rutter et al., Antisocial Behavior by Young People (1998);
284. David P. Farrington, Psychosocial Predictors of Adult Antisocial Personality and Adult Convictions, 18 Behav. Sci. & L. 605 (2000);
285. Stephen P. Hinshaw & Carolyn A. Anderson, Conduct and Oppositional Defiant Disorders, in Child Psychopathology 113 (Eric J. Marsh & Russell A. Barkley eds., 1996);
286. Rolf Loeber & David P. Farrington, Never Too Early, Never Too Late: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions for Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders, 7 Stud. on Crime & Crime Prevention 7 (1998);
287. Joan McCord, Psychosocial Contributions to Psychopathy and Violence, in Violence and Psychopathy 141 (Adrian Raine & José Sanmartín eds., 2001).
288. See, e.g., Rutter et al., supra note 202;
289. Benjamin B. Lahey et al., Psychobiology, in Conduct Disorders in Children and Adolescents 27 (G. Pirooz Sholevar ed., 1995);
290. Terrie E. Moffitt, The Neuropsychology of Juvenile Delinquency: A Critical Review, 12 Crime & Just. 99 (1990);
291. Elizabeth J. Susman & Jordan W. Finkelstein, Biology, Development, and Dangerousness, in Clinical Assessment of Dangerousness 23 (Georges-Frank Pinard & Linda Pagani eds., 2001).
292. See Raine et al., Biosocial Bases of Violence: Conceptual and Theoretical Issues, in Biosocial Bases of Violence 1 (Adrian Raine, Patricia A. Brennan, David P. Farrington, & Sarnoff A. Mednick, eds. 1997).
293. See Adrian Raine, Biosocial Studies of Antisocial and Violent Behavior in Children and Adults: A Review, 30 J. Abnormal Child Psychol. 311 (2002).
294. Id. at 323.
295. Id.
296. Emmy E. Werner, Vulnerability and Resiliency in Children at Risk for Delinquency: A Longitudinal Study from Birth to Young Adulthood, in 10 Prevention of Delinquent Behavior 16, 22-28 (John D. Burchard & Sara N. Burchard eds., 1987, vol. 10 of Primary Prevention of Psychopathology).
297. Adrian Raine et al., Birth Complications Combined with Early Maternal Rejection at Age 1 Year Predispose to Violent Crime at Age 18 Years, 51 Archives Gen. Psychiatry 984, 984 (1994).
298. Id.
299. Id.
300. Sheilagh Hodgins et al., Obstetric Complications, Parenting, and Risk of Criminal Behavior, 58 Archives Gen. Psychiatry 746 (2001) (finding pregnancy complications interacted with poor parenting in predicting adult violence in a large Swedish sample);
301. Liisa Kemppainen et al., The One-Child Family and Violent Criminality: A 31-Year Follow-Up Study of the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort, 158 Am. J. Psychiatry 960 (2001) (finding that perinatal risk interacted with being an only child in raising the odds of adult violent offending by a factor of 4.4 in a sample of 5,587 Finnish males);
302. Louise Arseneault et al., Obstetrical Complications and Violent Delinquency: Testing Two Developmental Pathways, 73 Child Dev. 496 (2002) (finding in Canada that serious birth complications interacted with an adverse family environment in predisposing to violence at ages 6 and 17 and that this effect accounted for the continuity in violence between these ages);
303. Alex Piquero & Stephen Tibbetts, The Impact of Pre/Perinatal Disturbances and Disadvantaged Familial Environment in Predicting Criminal Offending, 8 Stud. on Crime & Crime Prevention 52 (1999) (finding in a prospective longitudinal study of 867 males and females from the Philadelphia Collaborative Perinatal Project that those with both pre/perinatal disturbances and a disadvantaged familial environment were much more likely to become adult violent offenders).
304. Nora D. Volkow et al., Brain Glucose Metabolism in Violent Psychiatric Patients: A Preliminary Study, 61 Psychiatry Res.: Neuroimaging 243 (1995).
305. Adrian Raine et al., Prefrontal Glucose Deficits in Murderers Lacking Psycosocial Deprivation, 11 Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology & Behav. Disorders 1 (1998).
306. Id.
307. Id. at 5-6.
308. Jeffrey L. Saver & Antonio R. Damasio, Preserved Access and Processing of Social Knowledge in a Patient with Acquired Sociopathy Due to Ventromedial Frontal Damage, 29 Neuoropsychologia 1241 (1991).
309. See Caspi et al., supra note 210, at 851.