The organization of behavioral repertoire in motor cortex

Annual Review of Neuroscience

Volumn 29, Issue , 2006, Pages 105-134

  Graziano, Michael ^a  

^a PRINCETON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Avoidance; Grasping; Locomotion; Microstimulation; Reaching

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR; CLIMBING; ELECTROSTIMULATION; LOCOMOTION; MOTOR CORTEX; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; NERVE CELL; NONHUMAN; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TOPOGRAPHY; ANIMAL; BEHAVIOR; BRAIN MAPPING; CYTOLOGY; HUMAN; MOTONEURON; MOVEMENT (PHYSIOLOGY); PHYSIOLOGY;

ANIMALS; BEHAVIOR; BRAIN MAPPING; HUMANS; MOTOR CORTEX; MOTOR NEURONS; MOVEMENT;

EID: 33748358549     PISSN: 0147006X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.neuro.29.051605.112924     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. Aflalo T, Graziano MSA. 2006. Partial tuning of motor cortex neurons to final posture in a free-moving paradigm. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. In press
2. Armstrong DM, Drew T. 1985. Forelimb electromyographic responses to motor cortex stimulation during locomotion in the cat. J. Physiol. 367:327-51
3. Asanuma H. 1975. Recent developments in the study of the columnar arrangement of neurons within the motor cortex. Physiol. Rev. 55:143-56
4. Asanuma H, Arnold A, Zarzecki P. 1976. Further study on the excitation of pyramidal tract cells by intracortical microstimulation. Exp. Brain Res. 26:443-61
5. Baker SN, Olivier E, Lemon RN. 1998. An investigation of the intrinsic circuitry of the motor cortex of the monkey using intra-cortical microstimulation. Exp. Brain Res. 123:397-411
6. Bizzi E, Tresch MC, Saltiel P, d'Avella A. 2000. New perspectives on spinal motor systems. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 1:101-8
7. Bortoff GA, Strick PL. 1993. Corticospinal terminations in two new-world primates: further evidence that corticomotoneuronal connections provide part of the neural substrate for manual dexterity. J. Neurosci. 13:5105-18
8. Brecht M, Schneider M, Sakmann B, Margrie TW. 2004. Whisker movements evoked by stimulation of single pyramidal cells in rat motor cortex. Nature 427:704-10
9. Bruce CJ, Goldberg ME, Bushnell MC, Stanton GB. 1985. Primate frontal eye fields. II. Physiological and anatomical correlates of electrically evoked eye movements. J. Neurophysiol. 54:714-34
10. Caggiula AR, Hoebel BG. 1966. "Copulation-reward site" in the posterior hypothalamus. Science 153:1284-85
11. Caminiti R, Johnson PB, Urbano A. 1990. Making arm movements within different parts of space: dynamic aspects in the primate motor cortex. J. Neurosci. 10:2039-58
12. Campbell AW. 1905. Histological Studies on the Localization of Cerebral Function. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
13. Chen LL, Walton MM. 2005. Head movement evoked by electrical stimulation in the supplementary eye field of the rhesus monkey. J. Neurophysiol. 94:4502-19
14. Cheney PD, Fetz EE. 1985. Comparable patterns of muscle facilitation evoked by individual corticomotoneuronal (CM) cells and by single intracortical microstimuli in primates: evidence for functional groups of CM cells. J. Neurophysiol. 53:786-804
15. Cheney PD, Fetz EE, Palmer SS. 1985. Patterns of facilitation and suppression of antagonist forelimb muscles from motor cortex sites in the awake monkey. J. Neurophysiol. 53:805-20
16. Cisek P, Crammond DJ, Kalaska JF. 2003. Neural activity in primary motor and dorsal premotor cortex in reaching tasks with the contralateral versus ipsilateral arm. J. Neurophysiol. 89:922-42
17. Colby CL, Duhamel JR, Goldberg ME. 1993. Ventral intraparietal area of the macaque: anatomic location and visual response properties. J. Neurophysiol. 69:902-14
18. Cooke DF, Graziano MSA. 2003. Defensive movements evoked by air puff in monkeys. J. Neurophysiol. 90:3317-29
19. Cooke DF, Graziano MSA. 2004a. Sensorimotor integration in the precentral gyrus: polysensory neurons and defensive movements. J. Neurophysiol. 91:1648-60
20. Cooke DF, Graziano MSA. 2004b. Super-flinchers and nerves of steel: defensive movements altered by chemical manipulation of a cortical motor area. Neuron 43:585-93
21. Cooke DF, Taylor CSR, Moore T, Graziano MSA. 2003. Complex movements evoked by microstimulation of area VIP. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100:6163-68
22. Crammond DJ, Kalaska JF. 1996. Differential relation of discharge in primary motor cortex and premotor cortex to movements versus actively maintained postures during a reaching task. Exp. Brain Res. 108:45-61
23. Crowe DA, Chafee MV, Averbeck BB, Georgopoulos AP. 2004. Participation of primary motor cortical neurons in a distributed network during maze solution: representation of spatial parameters and time-course comparison with parietal area 7a. Exp. Brain Res. 158:28-34
24. d'Avella A, Bizzi E. 2005. Shared and specific muscle synergies in natural motor behaviors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102:3076-78
25. d'Avella A, Saltiel P, Bizzi E. 2003. Combinations of muscle synergies in the construction of a natural motor behavior. Nat. Neurosci. 6:300-8
26. Desimone R, Albright TD, Gross CG, Bruce C. 1984. Stimulus-selective properties of inferior temporal neurons in the macaque. J. Neurosci. 4:2051-62
27. Desmurget M, Prablanc C. 1997. Postural control of three-dimensional prehension movements. J. Neurophysiol. 77:452-64
28. Donoghue JP, LeiBovic S, Sanes JN. 1992. Organization of the forelimb area in squirrel monkey motor cortex: representation of digit, wrist, and elbow muscles. Exp. Brain Res. 89:1-19
29. Duhamel JR, Colby CL, Goldberg ME. 1998. Ventral intraparietal area of the macaque: congruent visual and somatic response properties. J. Neurophysiol. 79:126-36
30. Dum RP, Strick PL. 1996. Spinal cord terminations of the medial wall motor areas in macaque monkeys. J. Neurosci. 16:6513-25
31. Dum RP, Strick PL. 2002. Motor areas in the frontal lobe of the primate. Physiol. Behav. 77:677-82
32. Dum RP, Strick PL. 2005. Frontal lobe inputs to the digit representations of the motor areas on the lateral surface of the hemisphere. J. Neurosci. 25:1375-86
33. Durbin R, Mitchison G. 1990. A dimension reduction framework for understanding cortical maps. Nature 43:644-47
34. Ethier C, Imbeault M, Ung VR, Capaday C. 2004. Vectorial addition of motor cortical outputs in the cat. Soc. Neurosci. 30:872.14. (Abstr.)
35. Evarts EV. 1968. Relation of pyramidal tract activity to force exerted during voluntary movement. J. Neurophysiol. 31:14-27
36. Feldman AG. 1986. Once more on the equilibrium-point hypothesis (lambda model) for motor control. J. Mot. Behav. 18:17-54
37. Ferrier D. 1873. Experimental researches in cerebral physiology and pathology. West Riding Lunatic Asylum Med. Rep. 3:30-96
38. Fetz EE, Perlmutter SI, Prut Y, Seki K, Votaw S. 2002. Roles of primate spinal interneurons in preparation and execution of voluntary hand movement. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 40:53-65
39. Flash T, Hogan N. 1985. The coordination of arm movements: an experimentally confirmed experimental model. J. Neurosci. 5:1688-703
40. Foerster O. 1936. The motor cortex of man in the light of Hughlings Jackson's doctrines. Brain 59:135-59
41. Fogassi L, Gallese V, Fadiga L, Luppino G, Matelli M, Rizzolatti G. 1996. Coding of peripersonal space in inferior premotor cortex (area F4). J. Neurophysiol. 76:141-57
42. Freedman EG, Stanford TR, Sparks DL. 1996. Combined eye-head gaze shifts produced by electrical stimulation of the superior colliculus in rhesus monkeys. J. Neurophysiol. 76:927-52
43. Fritsch G, Hitzig E. 1870. Ueber die elektrishe Erregarkeit des Grosshirns. Trans, by G. von Bonin. In The Cerebral Cortex, ed. WW Nowinski, pp. 73-96. Springfield, IL: Thomas
44. Fulton JF. 1938. Physiology of the Nervous System. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
45. Gatter KC, Sloper JJ, Powell TP. 1978. The intrinsic connections of the cortex of area 4 of the monkey. Brain 101:513-41
46. Gentilucci M, Fogassi L, Luppino G, Matelli M, Camarda R, Rizzolatti G. 1988. Functional organization of inferior area 6 in the macaque monkey. I. Somatotopy and the control of proximal movements. Exp. Brain Res. 71:475-90
47. Georgopoulos AP, Ashe J, Smyrnis N, Taira M. 1992. The motor cortex and the coding of force. Science 256:1692-95
48. Georgopoulos AP, Lurito JT, Petrides M, Schwartz AB, Massey JT. 1989. Mental rotation of the neuronal population vector. Science 243:234-36
49. Georgopoulos AP, Schwartz AB, Kettner RE. 1986. Neuronal population coding of movement direction. Science 233:1416-19
50. Ghosh S, Porter R. 1988. Morphology of pyramidal neurones in monkey motor cortex and the synaptic actions of their intracortical axon collaterals. J. Physiol. 400:593-615
51. Giszter SF, Mussa-Ivaldi FA, Bizzi E. 1993. Convergent force fields organized in the frog's spinal cord. J. Neurosci. 13:467-91
52. Gottlieb JP, Bruce CJ, MacAvoy MG. 1993. Smooth eye movements elicited by microstimulation in the primate frontal eye field. J. Neurophysiol. 69:786-99
53. Gould HJ 3rd, Cusick CG, Pons TP, Kaas JH. 1986. The relationship of corpus callosum connections to electrical stimulation maps of motor, supplementary motor, and the frontal eye fields in owl monkeys. J. Comp. Neurol. 247:297-325
54. Graziano MSA, Aflalo T, Cooke DF. 2005. Arm movements evoked by electrical stimulation in the motor cortex of monkeys. J. Neurophysiol. 94:4209-23
55. Graziano MSA, Cooke DF. 2006. Parieto-frontal interactions, personal space, and defensive behavior. Neuropsychologia. In press
56. Graziano MSA, Cooke DF, Taylor CSR, Moore T. 2003. Distribution of hand location in monkeys during spontaneous behavior. Exp. Brain Res. 155:30-36
57. Graziano MSA, Gandhi S. 2000. Location of the polysensory zone in the precentral gyrus of anesthetized monkeys. Exp. Brain Res. 135:259-66
58. Graziano MSA, Hu XT, Gross CG. 1997. Visuo-spatial properties of ventral premotor cortex. J. Neurophysiol. 77:2268-92
59. Graziano MSA, Patel KT, Taylor CSR. 2004. Mapping from motor cortex to biceps and triceps altered by elbow angle. J. Neurophysiol. 92:395-407
60. Graziano MSA, Reiss LA, Gross CG. 1999. A neuronal representation of the location of nearby sounds. Nature 397:428-30
61. Graziano MSA, Taylor CSR, Moore T. 2002a. Complex movements evoked by microstimulation of precentral cortex. Neuron 34:841-51
62. Graziano MSA, Taylor CSR, Moore T, Cooke DF. 2002b. The cortical control of movement revisited. Neuron 36:349-62
63. Haiss F, Schwarz C. 2005. Spatial segregation of different modes of movement control in the whisker representation of rat primary motor cortex. J. Neurosci. 25:1579-87
64. Hart CB, Giszter SF. 2004. Modular premotor drives and unit bursts as primitives for frog motor behaviors. J. Neurosci. 24:5269-82
65. He SQ, Dum RP, Strick PL. 1993. Topographic organization of corticospinal projections from the frontal lobe: motor areas on the lateral surface of the hemisphere. J. Neurosci. 13:952-80
66. He SQ, Dum RP, Strick PL. 1995. Topographic organization of corticospinal projections from the frontal lobe: motor areas on the medial surface of the hemisphere. J. Neurosci. 15:3284-306
67. Hocherman S, Wise SP. 1991. Effects of hand movement path on motor cortical activity in awake, behaving rhesus monkeys. Exp. Brain Res. 83:285-302
68. Hoebel BG. 1969. Feeding and self-stimulation. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 157:758-78
69. Holdefer RN, Miller LE. 2002. Primary motor cortical neurons encode functional muscle synergies. Exp. Brain Res. 146:233-43
70. Huang CS, Hiraba H, Murray GM, Sessle BJ. 1989. Topographical distribution and functional properties of cortically induced rhythmical jaw movements in the monkey (Macaca fascicularis). J. Neurophysiol. 61:635-50
71. Huntley GW, Jones EG. 1991. Relationship of intrinsic connections to forelimb movement representations in monkey motor cortex: a correlative anatomic and physiological study. J. Neurophysiol. 66:390-413
72. Jankowska E, Hammar I. 2002. Spinal interneurones; how can studies in animals contribute to the understanding of spinal interneuronal systems in man? Brain Res. Rev. 40:19-28
73. Jankowska E, Padel Y, Tanaka R. 1975. The mode of activation of pyramidal tract cells by intracortical stimuli. J. Physiol. 249:617-36
74. Johnson PB, Ferraina S, Bianchi L, Caminiti R. 1996. Cortical networks for visual reaching: physiological and anatomical organization of frontal and parietal lobe arm regions. Cereb. Cortex 6:102-19
75. Kakei S, Hoffman D, Strick P. 1999. Muscle and movement representations in the primary motor cortex. Science 285:2136-39
76. Kohonen T. 1984. Self Organization and Associative Memory. Berlin: Springer
77. Krishnamoorthy V, Latash ML, Scholz JP, Zatsiorsky VM. 2003. Muscle synergies during shifts of the center of pressure by standing persons. Exp. Brain Res. 152:281-92
78. Kwan HC, MacKay WA, Murphy JT, Wong YC. 1978. Spatial organization of precentral cortex in awake primates. II. Motor outputs. J. Neurophysiol. 41:1120-31
79. Kwan HC, Murphy JT, Wong YC. 1987. Interaction between neurons in precentral cortical zones controlling different joints. Brain Res. 400:259-69
80. Landgren S, Phillips CG, Porter R. 1962. Cortical fields of origin of the monosynaptic pyramidal pathways to some alpha motoneurones of the baboon's hand and forearm. J. Physiol. 161:112-25
81. Lawrence DG. 1994. Central neural mechanisms of prehension. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 72:580-82
82. Lemon RN, Baker SN, Davis JA, Kirkwood PA, Maier MA, Yang HS. 1998. The importance of the cortico-motoneuronal system for control of grasp. Novartis Found. Symp. 218:202-15
83. Lemon RN, Johansson RS, Westling G. 1995. Corticospinal control during reach, grasp, and precision lift in man. J. Neurosci. 15:6145-56
84. Lemon RN, Kirkwood PA, Maier MA, Nakajima K, Nathan P. 2004. Direct and indirect pathways for corticospinal control of upper limb motoneurons in the primate. Prog. Brain Res. 143:263-79
85. Lewis JW, Van Essen DC. 2000. Corticocortical connections of visual, sensorimotor, and multimodal processing areas in the parietal lobe of the macaque monkey. J. Comp. Neurol. 428:112-37
86. Li CS, Padoa-Schioppa C, Bizzi E. 2001. Neuronal correlates of motor performance and motor learning in the primary motor cortex of monkeys adapting to an external force field. Neuron 30:593-607
87. Logothetis NK, Pauls J, Poggio T. 1995. Shape representation in the inferior temporal cortex of monkeys. Curr. Biol. 5:552-63
88. Lu X, Ashe J. 2005. Anticipatory activity in primary motor cortex codes memorized movement sequences. Neuron 45:967-73
89. Lu MT, Preston JB, Strick PL. 1994. Interconnections between the prefrontal cortex and the premotor areas in the frontal lobe. J. Comp. Neurol. 341:375-92
90. Luppino G, Matelli M, Camarda RM, Gallese V, Rizzolatti G. 1991. Multiple representations of body movements in mesial area 6 and the adjacent cingulate cortex: an intracortical microstimulation study in the macaque monkey. J. Comp. Neurol. 311:463-82
91. Luppino G, Murata A, Govoni P, Matelli M. 1999. Largely segregated parietofrontal connections linking rostral intraparietal cortex (areas AIP and VIP) and the ventral premotor cortex (areas F5 and F4). Exp. Brain Res. 128:181-87
92. Maier MA, Armand J, Kirkwood PA, Yang HW, Davis JN, Lemon RN. 2002. Differences in the corticospinal projection from primary motor cortex and supplementary motor area to macaque upper limb motoneurons: an anatomical and electrophysiological study. Cereb. Cortex. 12:281-96
93. Maier MA, Olivier E, Baker SN, Kirkwood PA, Morris T, Lemon RN. 1997. Direct and indirect corticospinal control of arm and hand motoneurons in the squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus). J. Neurophysiol. 78:721-33
94. Martin JH, Engber D, Meng Z. 2005. Effect of forelimb use on postnatal development of the forelimb motor representation in primary motor cortex of the cat. J. Neurophysiol. 93:2822-31
95. Martinez-Trujillo JC, Wang H, Crawford JD. 2003. Electrical stimulation of the supplementary eye fields in the head-free macaque evokes kinematically normal gaze shifts. J. Neurophysiol. 89:2961-74
96. Matelli M, Luppino G, Rizzolatti G. 1985. Patterns of cytochrome oxidase activity in the frontal agranular cortex of the macaque monkey. Behav. Brain Res. 18:125-36
97. Matsumura M, Chen D, Sawaguchi T, Kubota K, Fetz EE. 1996. Synaptic interactions between primate precentral cortex neurons revealed by spike-triggered averaging of intracellular membrane potentials in vivo. J. Neurosci. 16:7757-67
98. Matsuzaka Y, Aizawa H, Tanji J. 1992. A motor area rostral to the supplementary motor area (presupplementary motor area) in the monkey: neuronal activity during a learned motor task. J. Neurophysiol. 68:653-62
99. Messier J, Kalaska JF. 2000. Covariation of primate dorsal premotor cell activity with direction and amplitude during a memorized-delay reaching task. J. Neurophysiol. 84:152-65
100. Mitz AR, Wise SP. 1987. The somatotopic organization of the supplementary motor area: intracortical microstimulation mapping. J. Neurosci. 7:1010-21
101. Murata A, Fadiga L, Fogassi L, Gallese V, Raos V, Rizzolatti G. 1997. Object representation in the ventral premotor cortex (area F5) of the monkey. J. Neurophysiol. 78:2226-30
102. Murray EA, Coulter JD. 1981. Organization of corticospinal neurons in the monkey. J. Comp. Neurol. 195:339-65
103. Mushiake H, Inase M, Tanji J. 1990. Selective coding of motor sequence in the supplementary motor area of the monkey cerebral cortex. Exp. Brain Res. 82:208-10
104. Obermayer K, Blasdel GG. 1993. Geometry of orientation and ocular dominance columns in monkey striate cortex. J. Neurosci. 13:4114-29
105. Park MC, Belhaj-Saif A, Cheney PD. 2004. Properties of primary motor cortex output to forelimb muscles in rhesus macaques. J. Neurophysiol. 92:2968-84
106. Park MC, Belhaj-Saif A, Gordon M, Cheney PD. 2001. Consistent features in the forelimb representation of primary motor cortex in rhesus macaques. J. Neurosci. 21:2784-92
107. Penfield W. 1954. Mechanisms of voluntary movement. Brain 77:1-17
108. Penfield W, Boldrey E. 1937. Somatic motor and sensory representation in the cerebral cortex of man as studied by electrical stimulation. Brain 60:389-443
109. Preuss TM, Stepniewska I, Kaas JH. 1996. Movement representation in the dorsal and ventral premotor areas of owl monkeys: a microstimulation study. J. Comp. Neurol. 371:649-76
110. Reina GA, Moran DW, Schwartz AB. 2001. On the relationship between joint angular velocity and motor cortical discharge during reaching. J. Neurophysiol. 85:2576-89
111. Rho MJ, Lavoie S, Drew T. 1999. Effects of red nucleus microstimulation on the locomotor pattern and timing in the intact cat: a comparison with the motor cortex. J. Neurophysiol. 81:2297-315
112. Rizzolatti G, Camarda R, Fogassi L, Gentilucci M, Luppino G, Matelli M. 1988. Functional organization of inferior area 6 in the macaque monkey. II. Area F5 and the control of distal movements. Exp. Brain Res. 71:491-507
113. Rizzolatti G, Luppino G. 2001. The cortical motor system. Neuron 31:889-901
114. Rizzolatti G, Scandolara C, Matelli M, Gentilucci M. 1981. Afferent properties of periarcuate neurons in macaque monkeys. II. Visual responses. Behav. Brain Res. 2:147-63
115. Robinson DA. 1972. Eye movements evoked by collicular stimulation in the alert monkey. Vis. Res. 12:1795-808
116. Robinson DA, Fuchs AF. 1969. Eye movements evoked by stimulation of the frontal eye fields. J. Neurophysiol. 32:637-48
117. Romo R, Hernandez A, Zainos A, Salinas E. 1998. Somatosensory discrimination based on cortical microstimulation. Nature 392:387-90
118. Rosenbaum DA, Loukopoulos LD, Meulenbroek RG, Vaughan J, Engelbrecht SE. 1995. Planning reaches by evaluating stored postures. Psychol. Rev. 102:28-67
119. Salzman CD, Britten KH, Newsome WT. 1990. Cortical microstimulation influences perceptual judgements of motion direction. Nature 346:174-77
120. Sanes JN, Donoghue JP. 2000. Plasticity and primary motor cortex. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 23:393-415
121. Sanes JN, Schieber MH. 2001. Orderly somatotopy in primary motor cortex: Does it exist? Neuroimage 13:968-74
122. Sanes JN, Wang J, Donoghue JP. 1992. Immediate and delayed changes of rat cortical output representation with new forelimb configurations. Cereb. Cortex 2:141-52
123. Schieber MH. 2002. Motor cortex and the distributed anatomy of finger movements. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 508:411-16
124. Schiller PH, Stryker M. 1972. Single-unit recording and stimulation in superior colliculus of the alert rhesus monkey. J. Neurophysiol. 35:915-24
125. Schlack A, Sterbing S, Hartung K, Hoffmann K-P, Bremmer F. 2005. Multisensory space representations in the macaque ventral intraparietal area (VIP). J. Neurosci. 25:4616-25
126. Schneider C, Devanne H, Lavoie BA, Capaday C. 2002. Neural mechanisms involved in the functional linking of motor cortical points. Exp. Brain Res. 146:86-94
127. Schreiner CE. 1995. Order and disorder in auditory cortical maps. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 5:489-96
128. Schwartz EL, Desimone R, Albright TD, Gross CG. 1983. Shape recognition and inferior temporal neurons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80:5776-78
129. Scott SH. 2004. Optimal feedback control and the neural basis of volitional motor control. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 5:532-46
130. Scott SH, Kalaska JF. 1995. Changes in motor cortex activity during reaching movements with similar hand paths but different arm postures. J. Neurophysiol. 73:2563-67
131. Scott SH, Kalaska JF. 1997. Reaching movements with similar hand paths but different arm orientations. I. Activity of individual cells in motor cortex. J. Neurophysiol. 77:826-52
132. Sergio LE, Kalaska JF. 2003. Systematic changes in motor cortex cell activity with arm posture during directional isometric force generation. J. Neurophysiol. 89:212-28
133. Stanford TR, Freedman EG, Sparks DL. 1996. Site and parameters of microstimulation: evidence for independent effects on the properties of saccades evoked from the primate superior colliculus. J. Neurophysiol. 76:3360-81
134. Stepniewska I, Fang PC, Kaas JH. 2005. Microstimulation reveals specialized subregions for different complex movements in posterior parietal cortex of prosimian galagos. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102:4878-83
135. Strick PL, Preston JB. 1978. Multiple representation in the primate motor cortex. Brain Res. 154:366-70
136. Tachibana Y, Nambu A, Hatanaka N, Miyachi S, Takada M. 2004. Input-output organization of the rostral part of the dorsal premotor cortex, with special reference to its corticostriatal projection. Neurosci. Res. 48:45-57
137. Taylor CSR, Gross CG. 2003. Twitches versus movements: a story of motor cortex. Neuroscientist 9:332-42
138. Tehovnik EJ, Lee K. 1993. The dorsomedial frontal cortex of the rhesus monkey: topographic representation of saccades evoked by electrical stimulation. Exp. Brain Res. 96:430-42
139. Thier P, Andersen RA. 1998. Electrical microstimulation distinguishes distinct saccade-related areas in the posterior parietal cortex. J. Neurophysiol. 80:1713-35
140. Ting LH, Macpherson JM. 2005. A limited set of muscle synergies for force control during a postural task. J. Neurophysiol. 93:609-13
141. Todorov E, Jordan MI. 2002. Optimal feedback control as a theory of motor coordination. Nat. Neurosci. 5:1226-35
142. Tolias AS, Sultan F, Augath M, Oeltermann A, Tehovnik EJ, et al. 2005. Mapping cortical activity elicited with electrical microstimulation using FMRI in the macaque. Neuron 48:901-11
143. Vindras P, Desmurget M, Viviani P. 2005. Error parsing in visuomotor pointing reveals independent processing of amplitude and direction. J. Neurophysiol. 94:1212-24
144. Wise SP. 1985. The primate premotor cortex: past, present, and preparatory. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 8:1-19
145. Woolsey CN, Settlage PH, Meyer DR, Sencer W, Hamuy TP, Travis AM. 1952. Patterns of localization in precentral and "supplementary" motor areas and their relation to the concept of a premotor area. Res. Pub. Assoc. Res. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 30:238-64
146. Wu CW, Bichot NP, Kaas JH. 2000. Converging evidence from microstimulation, architecture, and connections for multiple motor areas in the frontal and cingulate cortex of prosimian primates. J. Comp. Neurol. 423:140-77