Canine epilepsy: What can we learn from human seizure disorders?

Veterinary Journal

Volumn 172, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 207-217

  Chandler, Kate ^a  

^a ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Canine; Epilepsy; GABA; Review; Seizure

Indexed keywords

ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; BARBITURIC ACID DERIVATIVE; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; CARBAMAZEPINE; ETHOSUXIMIDE; ETIRACETAM; FELBAMATE; GABAPENTIN; LAMOTRIGINE; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENYTOIN; POTASSIUM BROMIDE; TIAGABINE; TOPIRAMATE; VALPROIC ACID; ZONISAMIDE;

ARTICLE; ATAXIA; BRAIN DEPTH STIMULATION; BRAIN NERVE CELL; BULIMIA; CLINICAL PROTOCOL; DERMATITIS; DIET THERAPY; DOG DISEASE; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG ACTIVITY; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG DOSE REGIMEN; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG ELIMINATION; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG TOLERABILITY; DRUG USE; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY; EPILEPSY; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GENE MUTATION; GENETIC DISORDER; HUMAN; IDIOPATHIC DISEASE; LIVER TOXICITY; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; NEUROTOXICITY; NEUTROPENIA; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PANCREATITIS; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POLYDIPSIA; POLYURIA; SEDATION; SEIZURE; SKIN DEFECT; TEMPORAL LOBE EPILEPSY; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; VAGUS NERVE STIMULATION; VOMITING;

ANIMALS; ANTICONVULSANTS; DOG DISEASES; DOGS; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY; EPILEPSY; HUMANS; SEIZURES;

CANIS FAMILIARIS; RODENTIA;

EID: 33746731746     PISSN: 10900233     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2005.07.001     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. Andersson B., and Olssen S.-E. Epilepsy in a dog with extensive with extensive bilateral damage to the hippocampus. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavia 1 (1959) 98-104
2. Baulac S., Gourfinkel-An I., Nabbout R., Huberfeld G., Serratosa J., LeGuern E., and Baulac M. Fever, genes, and epilepsy. Lancet Neurology 3 (2004) 421-430
3. Baulac S., Picard F., Herman A., Feingold J., Genin E., Hirsch E., Prud'homme J.F., Baulac M., Brice A., and LeGuern E. Evidence for digenic inheritance in a family with both febrile convulsions and temporal lobe epilepsy implicating chromosomes 18qter and 1q25-q31. Annals of Neurology 49 (2001) 786-792
4. Berendt, M., 2005. Epilepsy. In: Vite, C.H., Braund, K.G. (Eds.), Braund's Clinical Neurology in Small Animals. International Veterinary Information Service, Ithaca, NY, USA. Available from: .
5. Berendt M., and Gram L. Epilepsy and seizure classification in 63 dogs: a reappraisal of veterinary epilepsy terminology. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 13 (1999) 14-20
6. Berendt M., Hogenhaven H., Flagstad A., and Dam M. Electroencephalography in dogs with epilepsy: similarities between human and canine findings. Acta Neurologica Scandinavia 99 (1999) 276-283
7. Bertram E.H., Zhang D.X., Mangan P., Fountain N., and Rempe D. Functional anatomy of limbic epilepsy: a proposal for central synchronization of a diffusely hyperexcitable network. Epilepsy Research 32 (1998) 194-205
8. Bielfelt S.W., Redman H.C., and McClellan R.O. Sire- and sex-related differences in rates of epileptiform seizures in a purebred beagle dog colony. American Journal of Veterinary Research 32 (1971) 2039-2048
9. Biervert C., Schroeder B.C., Kubisch C., Berkovic S.F., Propping P., Jentsch T.J., and Steinlein O.K. A potassium channel mutation in neonatal human epilepsy. Science 279 (1998) 403-406
10. Blume W.T., Luders H.O., Mizrahi E., Tassinari C., van Emde B.W., and Engel Jr. J. Glossary of descriptive terminology for ictal semiology: report of the ILAE task force on classification and terminology. Epilepsia 42 (2001) 1212-1218
11. Buckmaster P.S., Smith M.O., Buckmaster C.L., LeCouteur R.A., and Dudek F.E. Absence of temporal lobe epilepsy pathology in dogs with medically intractable epilepsy. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 16 (2002) 95-99
12. Buhl E.H., Otis T.S., and Mody I. Zinc-induced collapse of augmented inhibition by GABA in a temporal lobe epilepsy model. Science 271 (1996) 369-373
13. Chandler K.E., Princivalle A.P., Fabian-Fine R., Bowery N.G., Kullmann D.M., and Walker M.C. Plasticity of GABA (B) receptor-mediated heterosynaptic interactions at mossy fibers after status epilepticus. Journal of Neuroscience 23 (2003) 11382-11391
14. Claes L., Del Favero J., Ceulemans B., Lagae L., Van Broeckhoven C., and De Jonghe P. De novo mutations in the sodium-channel gene SCN1A cause severe myoclonic epilepsy of infancy. American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (2001) 1327-1332
15. Cohen I., Navarro V., Clemenceau S., Baulac M., and Miles R. On the origin of interictal activity in human temporal lobe epilepsy in vitro. Science 298 (2002) 1418-1421
16. Collins R.C., Tearse R.G., and Lothman E.W. Functional anatomy of limbic seizures: focal discharges from medial entorhinal cortex in rat. Brain Research 280 (1983) 25-40
17. Croft P.G. Electroencephalography in canine encephalitis. Journal of Small Animal Practice 11 (1970) 241-249
18. Croft P.G. Electroencephalography in canine head injury. Journal of Small Animal Practice 11 (1970) 473-484
19. Croft P.G. Electroencephalography in cerebrovascular disease in small animals. Journal of Small Animal Practice 12 (1971) 289-296
20. Croft P.G. Electroencephalography and space-occupying lesions in small animals. Journal of Small Animal Practice 13 (1972) 175-184
21. Dayrell-Hart B., Steinberg S.A., VanWinkle T.J., and Farnbach G.C. Hepatotoxicity of phenobarbital in dogs: 18 cases (1985-1989). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 199 (1991) 1060-1066
22. Dewey C.W., Guiliano R., Boothe D.M., Berg J.M., Kortz G.D., Joseph R.J., and Budsberg S.C. Zonisamide therapy for refractory idiopathic epilepsy in dogs. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association 40 (2004) 285-291
23. Diener W., Sorni M., Ruile S., Rude P., Kruse R., Becker E., Bork K., and Berg P.A. Panniculitis due to potassium bromide. Brain Development 20 (1998) 83-87
24. Dodman N.H., Miczek K.A., Knowles K., Thalhammer J.G., and Shuster L. Phenobarbital-responsive episodic dyscontrol (rage) in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 201 (1992) 1580-1583
25. Doherty J., and Dingledine R. Reduced excitatory drive onto interneurons in the dentate gyrus after status epilepticus. Journal of Neuroscience 21 (2001) 2048-2057
26. Ellenberger C., Mevissen M., Doherr M., Scholtysik G., and Jaggy A. Inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters in the cerebrospinal fluid of epileptic dogs. American Journal of Veterinary Research 65 (2004) 1108-1113
27. Engel Jr. J. Introduction to temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Research 26 (1996) 141-150
28. Engel Jr. J. A proposed diagnostic scheme for people with epileptic seizures and with epilepsy: report of the ILAE Task Force on classification and terminology. Epilepsia 42 (2001) 796-803
29. Falco M.J., Barker J., and Wallace M.E. The genetics of epilepsy in the British Alsatian. Journal of Small Animal Practice 15 (1974) 685-692
30. Famula T.R., and Oberbauer A.M. Segregation analysis of epilepsy in the Belgian tervueren dog. Veterinary Record 147 (2000) 218-221
31. Farnbach G.C. Serum concentrations and efficacy of phenytoin, phenobarbital, and primidone in canine epilepsy. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 184 (1984) 1117-1120
32. Fisher R.S. Animal models of the epilepsies. Brain Research: Brain Research Reviews 14 (1989) 245-278
33. Gaskill C.L., and Cribb A.E. Pancreatitis associated with potassium bromide/phenobarbital combination therapy in epileptic dogs. Canadian Veterinary Journal 41 (2000) 555-558
34. Gaskill C.L., Miller L.M., Mattoon J.S., Hoffmann W.E., Burton S.A., Gelens H.C., Ihle S.L., Miller J.B., Shaw D.H., and Cribb A.E. Liver histopathology and liver and serum alanine aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase activities in epileptic dogs receiving phenobarbital. Veterinary Pathology 42 (2005) 147-160
35. Gibbs J.W., Shumate M.D., and Coulter D.A. Differential epilepsy-associated alterations in postsynaptic GABA(A) receptor function in dentate granule and CA1 neurons. Journal of Neurophysiology 77 (1997) 1924-1938
36. Gourfinkel-An I., Baulac S., Nabbout R., Ruberg M., Baulac M., Brice A., and LeGuern E. Monogenic idiopathic epilepsies. Lancet Neurology 3 (2004) 209-218
37. Gu W., Brodtkorb E., and Steinlein O.K. LGI1 is mutated in familial temporal lobe epilepsy characterized by aphasic seizures. Annals of Neurology 52 (2002) 364-367
38. Haas K.Z., Sperber E.F., Moshe S.L., and Stanton P.K. Kainic acid-induced seizures enhance dentate gyrus inhibition by downregulation of GABA(B) receptors. Journal of Neuroscience 16 (1996) 4250-4260
39. Hall S.J., and Wallace M.E. Canine epilepsy: a genetic counselling programme for keeshonds. Veterinary Record 138 (1996) 358-360
40. Hamati-Haddad A., and Abou-Khalil B. Epilepsy diagnosis and localization in patients with antecedent childhood febrile convulsions. Neurology 50 (1998) 917-922
41. Hasegawa D., Orima H., Fujita M., Hashizume K., and Tanaka T. Complex partial status epilepticus induced by a microinjection of kainic acid into unilateral amygdala in dogs and its brain damage. Brain Research 955 (2002) 174-182
42. Heynold Y., Faissler D., Steffen F., and Jaggy A. Clinical, epidemiological and treatment results of idiopathic epilepsy in 54 labrador retrievers: a long-term study. Journal of Small Animal Practice 38 (1997) 7-14
43. Holliday T.A. Seizure disorders. Veterinary Clinics of North America Small Animal Practice 10 (1980) 3-29
44. Holliday, TA., 1999. Theory and practice of electroencephalography. In: Proceedings of the 17th Meeting of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.
45. Holliday T.A., Cunningham J.G., and Gutnick M.J. Comparative clinical and electroencephalographic studies of canine epilepsy. Epilepsia 11 (1970) 281-292
46. Huguenard J.R. Neuronal circuitry of thalamocortical epilepsy and mechanisms of antiabsence drug action. Advances in Neurology 79 (1999) 991-999
47. Jacobs G., Calvert C., and Kaufman A. Neutropenia and thrombocytopenia in three dogs treated with anticonvulsants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 212 (1998) 681-684
48. Jaggy A., and Bernardini M. Idiopathic Epilepsy in 125 dogs: a long term study. Clinical and electroencephalographic findings. Journal of Small Animal Practice 39 (1998) 23-29
49. Jaggy A., and Heynold Y. Idiopathic epilepsy in the dog. Schweiz Arch Tierheilkd 138 (1996) 523-531
50. Jaggy A., Faissler D., Gaillard C., Srenk P., and Graber H. Genetic aspects of idiopathic epilepsy in Labrador retrievers. Journal of Small Animal Practice 39 (1998) 275-280
51. Jefferys J.G. Nonsynaptic modulation of neuronal activity in the brain: electric currents and extracellular ions. Physiological Reviews 75 (1995) 689-723
52. Kalachikov S., Evgrafov O., Ross B., Winawer M., Barker-Cummings C., Martinelli B.F., Choi C., Morozov P., Das K., Teplitskaya E., Yu A., Cayanis E., Penchaszadeh G., Kottmann A.H., Pedley T.A., Hauser W.A., Ottman R., and Gilliam T.C. Mutations in LGI1 cause autosomal-dominant partial epilepsy with auditory features. Nature Genetics 30 (2002) 335-341
53. Kantrowitz L.B., Peterson M.E., Trepanier L.A., Melian C., and Nichols R. Serum total thyroxine, total triiodothyronine, free thyroxine, and thyrotropin concentrations in epileptic dogs treated with anticonvulsants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 214 (1999) 1804-1808
54. Kathmann I., Jaggy A., Busato A., Bartschi M., and Gaillard C. Clinical and genetic investigations of idiopathic epilepsy in the Bernese mountain dog. Journal of Small Animal Practice 40 (1999) 319-325
55. Khazipov R., and Holmes G.L. Synchronization of kainate-induced epileptic activity via GABAergic inhibition in the superfused rat hippocampus in vivo. Journal of Neuroscience 23 (2003) 5337-5341
56. Knowles K. Idiopathic epilepsy. Clinical Techniques in Small Animal Practice 13 (1998) 144-151
57. Kwan P., Sills G.J., and Brodie M.J. The mechanisms of action of commonly used antiepileptic drugs. Pharmacology and Therapeutics 90 (2001) 21-34
58. Licht M.H., Harper K.M., Lin S., Curtin J.J., Hyson L.L., and Willard K. Clinical presentations of naturally occurring canine seizures: similarities to human seizures. Epilepsy and Behaviour 3 (2002) 460-470
59. Lieberman D.N., and Mody I. Properties of single NMDA receptor channels in human dentate gyrus granule cells. The Journal of Physiology Online 518 (1999) 55-70
60. Likhodii S.S., Serbanescu I., Cortez M.A., Murphy P., Snead III O.C., and Burnham W.M. Anticonvulsant properties of acetone, a brain ketone elevated by the ketogenic diet. Annals of Neurology 54 (2003) 219-226
61. Lohi H., Young E.J., Fitzmaurice S.N., Rusbridge C., Chan E.M., Vervoort M., Turnbull J., Zhao X.C., Ianzano L., Paterson A.D., Sutter N.B., Ostrander E.A., Andre C., Shelton G.D., Ackerley C.A., Scherer S.W., and Minassian B.A. Expanded repeat in canine epilepsy. Science 307 (2005) 81
62. Loscher W., and Schwartz-Porsche D. Low levels of gamma-aminobutyric acid in cerebrospinal fluid of dogs with epilepsy. Journal of Neurochemistry 46 (1986) 1322-1325
63. Luders H., Acharya J., Baumgartner C., Benbadis S., Bleasel A., Burgess R., Dinner D.S., Ebner A., Foldvary N., Geller E., Hamer H., Holthausen H., Kotagal P., Morris H., Meencke H.J., Noachtar S., Rosenow F., Sakamoto A., Steinhoff B.J., Tuxhorn I., and Wyllie E. Semiological seizure classification. Epilepsia 39 (1998) 1006-1013
64. Lujan, A., Scott, S.D., Anderson, T.J., Chang, Y.P., Thomson, C.E., Long, S.N., 2004. The role of diet in refractory canine epilepsy - a retrospective case series. In: Scientific Proceedings BSAVA Congress.
65. March P.A., Podell M., and Sams R.A. Pharmacokinetics and toxicity of bromide following high-dose oral potassium bromide administration in healthy Beagles. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 25 (2002) 425-432
66. March P.A., Hillier A., Weisbrode S.E., Mattoon J.S., Johnson S.E., DiBartola S.P., and Brofman P.J. Superficial necrolytic dermatitis in 11 dogs with a history of phenobarbital administration (1995-2002). Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 18 (2004) 65-74
67. Meierkord H., Grunig F., Gutschmidt U., Gutierrez R., Pfeiffer M., Draguhn A., Bruckner C., and Heinemann U. Sodium bromide: effects on different patterns of epileptiform activity, extracellular pH changes and GABAergic inhibition. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology 361 (2000) 25-32
68. Mellema L.M., Koblik P.D., Kortz G.D., LeCouteur R.A., Chechowitz M.A., and Dickinson P.J. Reversible magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities in dogs following seizures. Veterinary Radiology and Ultrasound 40 (1999) 588-595
69. Montgomery D.L., and Lee A.C. Brain damage in the epileptic beagle dog. Veterinary Pathology 20 (1983) 160-169
70. Morita T., Shimada A., Takeuchi T., Hikasa Y., Sawada M., Ohiwa S., Takahashi M., Kubo N., Shibahara T., Miyata H., and Ohama E. Cliniconeuropathologic findings of familial frontal lobe epilepsy in Shetland sheepdogs. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 66 (2002) 35-41
71. Mormann F., Kreuz T., Andrzejak R.G., David P., Lehnertz K., and Elger C.E. Epileptic seizures are preceded by a decrease in synchronization. Epilepsy Research 53 (2003) 173-185
72. Munana K.R., Vitek S.M., Tarver W.B., Saito M., Skeen T.M., Sharp N.J., Olby N.J., and Haglund M.M. Use of vagal nerve stimulation as a treatment for refractory epilepsy in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 221 (2002) 977-983
73. O' Brien, D, 2003. Pathogenesis of idiopathic epilepsy. In: Proceedings of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine Annual Forum 2003, pp. 404-406.
74. Oliver Jr. J.E., and Hoerlein B.F. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 146 (1965) 1126-1133
75. Patterson E.E., Mickelson J.R., Da Y., Roberts M.C., McVey A.S., O'Brien D.P., Johnson G.S., and Armstrong P.J. Clinical characteristics and inheritance of idiopathic epilepsy in Vizslas. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 17 (2003) 319-325
76. Patterson E.E., Armstrong P.J., O'Brien D.P., Roberts M.C., Johnson G.S., and Mickelson J.R. Clinical description and mode of inheritance of idiopathic epilepsy in English springer spaniels. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 226 (2005) 54-58
77. Patterson E.E., Armstrong P.J., OBrien D.P., Roberts M.C., Johnson G.S., and Mickelson J.R. Clinical description and mode of inheritance of idiopathic epilepsy in english springer spaniels. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 226 (2005) 54-58
78. Pellegrino F.C., and Sica R.E. Canine electroencephalographic recording technique: findings in normal and epileptic dogs. Clinical Neurophysiology 115 (2004) 477-487
79. Pitkanen A., and Sutula T.P. Is epilepsy a progressive disorder? Prospects for new therapeutic approaches in temporal-lobe epilepsy. Lancet Neurology 1 (2002) 173-181
80. Platt, A.V., Garosi, L.S., Abramson, C.J., Penderis, J., 2003. Gabapentin as an adjunctive therapy for refractory idiopathic epilepsy in dogs. In: Proceedings of the ESVN Symposium.
81. Podell M. The use of diazepam per rectum at home for the acute management of cluster seizures in dogs. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 9 (1995) 68-74
82. Podell M. Epilepsy and seizure classification: a lesson from Leonardo. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 13 (1999) 3-4
83. Podell, M., 2004. Seizures. In: Platt, S., Olby, N., (Eds.), BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Neurology, BSAVA, pp. 97-112.
84. Podell M., and Fenner W.R. Bromide therapy in refractory canine idiopathic epilepsy. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 7 (1993) 318-327
85. Podell M., and Hadjiconstantinou M. Cerebrospinal fluid gamma-aminobutyric acid and glutamate values in dogs with epilepsy. American Journal of Veterinary Research 58 (1997) 451-456
86. Prynn R.B., and Redding R.W. Electroencephalogram in occult canine hydrocephalus. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 152 (1968) 1651-1657
87. Puchowicz M.A., Smith C.L., Bomont C., Koshy J., David F., and Brunengraber H. Dog model of therapeutic ketosis induced by oral administration of, R., S-1,3-butanediol diacetoacetate. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 11 (2000) 281-287
88. Radulovic L.L., Turck D., von Hodenberg A., Vollmer K.O., McNally W.P., DeHart P.D., Hanson B.J., Bockbrader H.N., and Chang T. Disposition of gabapentin (neurontin) in mice, rats, dogs, and monkeys. Drug Metabolism and Disposition 23 (1995) 441-448
89. Ravis W.R., Pedersoli W.M., and Wike J.S. Pharmacokinetics of phenobarbital in dogs given multiple doses. American Journal of Veterinary Research 50 (1989) 1343-1347
90. Redding R.W., Prynn R.B., and Wagner J.L. Clinical use of the electroencephalogram in canine encephalitis. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 148 (1966) 141-149
91. Remy S., Urban B.W., Elger C.E., and Beck H. Anticonvulsant pharmacology of voltage-gated Na+ channels in hippocampal neurons of control and chronically epileptic rats. European Journal of Neuroscience 17 (2003) 2648-2658
92. Ruehlmann D., Podell M., and March P. Treatment of partial seizures and seizure like activity with felbamate in six dogs. Journal of Small Animal Practice 42 (2001) 403-408
93. Sander H. Epilepsy: Questions and Answers (1997), Merit, Basingstoke
94. Sander J.W., and Shorvon S.D. Epidemiology of the epilepsies. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 61 (1996) 433-443
95. Schwartz-Porsche, D., 1986. Epidemiological, clinical and pharmacokinetic studies in spontaneously epileptic dogs and cats. In: Proceedings of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine Annual Forum.
96. Schwartz-Porsche D. Seizures. In: Braund K.G. (Ed). Clinical Syndromes in Veterinary Neurology (1994), St Louis, MO, Mosby 234-251
97. Schwartz-Porsche D., and Jurgens U. Effectiveness of bromide in therapy resistant epilepsy of dogs. Tierarztliche Praxis 19 (1991) 395-401
98. Schwartz-Porsche D., Loscher W., and Frey H.H. Therapeutic efficacy of phenobarbital and primidone in canine epilepsy: a comparison. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 8 (1985) 113-119
99. Sills G.J., and Brodie M.J. Update on the mechanisms of action of antiepileptic drugs. Epileptic Disorders 3 (2001) 165-172
100. Skyers P.S., Einheber S., Pierce J.P., and Milner T.A. Increased mu-opioid receptor labeling is found on inner molecular layer terminals of the dentate gyrus following seizures. Experimental Neurology 179 (2003) 200-209
101. Soderpalm B. Anticonvulsants: aspects of their mechanisms of action. European Journal of Pain 6 Suppl. A (2002) 3-9
102. Speciale J., and Stahlbrodt J.E. Use of ocular compression to induce vagal stimulation and aid in controlling seizures in seven dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 214 (1999) 663-665
103. Speckmann E.J., and Elger C. Introduction to the neurophysiological basis of the EEG and DC potentials. In: Niedermeyer E., and LopesDaSilva F.H. (Eds). Electroencephalography: Basic Principles, Clinical Applications and Related Fields (1987), Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, USA
104. Srenk P., and Jaggy A. Interictal electroencephalographic findings in a family of golden retrievers with idiopathic epilepsy. Journal of Small Animal Practice 37 (1996) 317-321
105. Stein V., and Nicoll R.A. GABA generates excitement. Neuron 37 (2003) 375-378
106. Steinberg, M., Faissler, D, 2004. Levetiracetam for longterm idiopathic epileptic dogs. In: Proceedings of the 22nd Annual American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine Forum.
107. Steinlein O.K. Genes and mutations in human idiopathic epilepsy. Brain and Development 26 (2004) 213-218
108. Steinlein O.K., Mulley J.C., Propping P., Wallace R.H., Phillips H.A., Sutherland G.R., Scheffer I.E., and Berkovic S.F. A missense mutation in the neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha 4 subunit is associated with autosomal dominant nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy. Nature Genetics 11 (1995) 201-203
109. Steiss J.E., Cox N.R., and Knecht C.D. Electroencephalographic and histopathologic correlations in eight dogs with intracranial mass lesions. American Journal of Veterinary Research 51 (1990) 1286-1291
110. Stonehewer J., Mackin A.J., Tasker S., Simpson J.W., and Mayhew I.G. Idiopathic phenobarbital-responsive hypersialosis in the dog: an unusual form of limbic epilepsy. Journal of Small Animal Practice 41 (2000) 416-421
111. Thiele E.A. Assessing the efficacy of antiepileptic treatments: the ketogenic diet. Epilepsia 44 Suppl. 7 (2003) 26-29
112. Trepanier L.A., and Babish J.G. Effect of dietary chloride content on the elimination of bromide by dogs. Research in Veterinary Science 58 (1995) 252-255
113. Trepanier L.A., Van Schoick A., Schwark W.S., and Carrillo J. Therapeutic serum drug concentrations in epileptic dogs treated with potassium bromide alone or in combination with other anticonvulsants: 122 cases (1992-1996). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 213 (1998) 1449-1453
114. Velazquez J.L., and Carlen P.L. Synchronization of GABAergic interneuronal networks during seizure-like activity in the rat horizontal hippocampal slice. European Journal of Neuroscience 11 (1999) 4110-4118
115. Volk, H., Chandler, K.E., 2005. Levetiracetam: a new treatment option for pharamacoresistant epileptic dogs. In: Proceedings of the 18th National Meeting of the British Neuroscience Association.
116. Wallace R.H., Scheffer I.E., Barnett S., Richards M., Dibbens L., Desai R.R., Lerman-Sagie T., Lev D., Mazarib A., Brand N., Ben Zeev B., Goikhman I., Singh R., Kremmidiotis G., Gardner A., Sutherland G.R., George Jr. A.L., Mulley J.C., and Berkovic S.F. Neuronal sodium-channel alpha1-subunit mutations in generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures plus. American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (2001) 859-865
117. Waugh J., and Goa K.L. Topiramate: as monotherapy in newly diagnosed epilepsy. CNS Drugs 17 (2003) 985-992
118. Yaari Y., and Beck H. Epileptic neurons in temporal lobe epilepsy. Brain Pathology 12 (2002) 234-239
119. Zabara J. Inhibition of experimental seizures in canines by repetitive vagal stimulation. Epilepsia 33 (1992) 1005-1012
120. Zhu L.J., Chen Z., Zhang L.S., Xu S.J., Xu A.J., and Luo J.H. Spatiotemporal changes of the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor subunit levels in rats with pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures. Neuroscience Letters 356 (2004) 53-56