Cerebral Manifestations in the Antiphospholipid (Hughes) Syndrome

Rheumatic Disease Clinics of North America

Volumn 32, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 465-490

  Sanna, Giovanni ^a   D'Cruz, David ^b   Cuadrado, Maria Jose ^b  

^a HOMERTON UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b ST THOMAS HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; ANTIMALARIAL AGENT; BROMOCRIPTINE; CHOLINERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; LEVODOPA; NARCOTIC ANALGESIC AGENT; PHOSPHOLIPID ANTIBODY; WARFARIN;

ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID SYNDROME; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DEMENTIA; EYE DISEASE; GUILLAIN BARRE SYNDROME; HEADACHE; HUMAN; INTRACRANIAL HYPERTENSION; MIGRAINE; MOTOR DYSFUNCTION; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; NEUROIMAGING; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; NEUROPSYCHIATRY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PATHOGENESIS; PERCEPTION DEAFNESS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SEIZURE; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY; SNEDDON SYNDROME; SPINAL CORD DISEASE; TRANSIENT GLOBAL AMNESIA; VEIN THROMBOSIS;

ANTICOAGULANTS; ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID SYNDROME; BRAIN; BRAIN DISEASES; HUMANS;

EID: 33746352779     PISSN: 0889857X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.rdc.2006.05.010     Document Type: Review

References (200)

1. Wilson W.A., Gharavi A.E., Koike T., et al. International consensus statement on preliminary classification criteria for definite antiphospholipid syndrome: report of an international workshop. Arthritis Rheum 42 (1999) 1309-1311
2. Miyakis S., Lockshin M.D., Atsumi T., et al. International consensus statement on an update of the classification criteria for definite antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). J Thromb Haemost 4 (2006) 295-306
3. Cervera R., Piette J.C., Font J., et al. Antiphospholipid syndrome: clinical and immunologic manifestations and patterns of disease expression in a cohort of 1,000 patients. Arthritis Rheum 46 (2002) 1019-1027
4. Khamashta M.A., Bertolaccini M.L., and Hughes G.R. Antiphospholipid (Hughes) syndrome. Autoimmunity 37 (2004) 309-312
5. Sanna G., Bertolaccini M.L., and Hughes G.R. Hughes syndrome, the antiphospholipid syndrome: a new chapter in neurology. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1051 (2005) 465-486
6. Sanna G., Bertolaccini M.L., Cuadrado M.J., et al. Central nervous system involvement in the antiphospholipid (Hughes) syndrome. Rheumatology (Oxford) 42 (2003) 200-213
7. Hughes G.R.V. Thrombosis, abortion, cerebral disease and the lupus anticoagulant. BMJ 287 (1983) 1088-1089
8. Harris E.N., Englert H., Derue G., et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies in acute Guillain-Barré syndrome. Lancet ii (1983) 1361-1362
9. Hughes G.R.V. The Prosser-White oration 1983. Connective tissue disease and the skin. Clin Exp Dermatol 9 (1984) 535-544
10. Harris E.N., Gharavi A.E., Mackworth-Young C.G., et al. Lupoid sclerosis: a possible pathogenetic role for antiphospholipid antibodies. Ann Rheum Dis 44 (1985) 281-283
11. Asherson R., Mercey D., Phillips G., et al. Recurrent stroke and multi-infarct dementia in systemic lupus erythematosus: association with antiphospholipid antibodies. Ann Rheum Dis 46 (1987) 605-611
12. Cuadrado M.J., Khamashta M.A., Ballesteros A., et al. Can neurologic manifestations of Hughes (antiphospholipid) syndrome be distinguished from multiple sclerosis? Analysis of 27 patients and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 79 (2000) 57-68
13. Cuadrado M.J., Khamashta M.A., D'Cruz D., et al. Migraine in Hughes syndrome. Heparin as a therapeutic trial?. Q J Med 94 (2001) 114-115
14. Hughes G.R. Migraine, memory loss, and "multiple sclerosis." Neurological features of the antiphospholipid (Hughes') syndrome. Postgrad Med J 79 (2003) 81-83
15. Shoenfeld Y., Lev S., Blatt I., et al. Features associated with epilepsy in the antiphospholipid syndrome. J Rheumatol 31 (2004) 1344-1348
16. Gomez-Puerta J.A., Cervera R., Calvo L.M., et al. Dementia associated with the antiphospholipid syndrome: clinical and radiological characteristics of 30 patients. Rheumatology (Oxford) 44 (2005) 95-99
17. Oosting J.D., Derksen R.H., Blokzijl L., et al. Antiphospholipid antibody positive sera enhance endothelial cell procoagulant activity-studies in a thrombosis model. Thromb Haemost 68 (1992) 278-284
18. Simantov R., LaSala J.M., Lo S.K., et al. Activation of cultured vascular endothelial cells by antiphospholipid antibodies. J Clin Invest 96 (1995) 2211-2219
19. Del Papa N., Guidali L., Sala A., et al. Endothelial cells as target for antiphospholipid antibodies. Human polyclonal and monoclonal anti-beta 2-glycoprotein I antibodies react in vitro with endothelial cells through adherent beta 2-glycoprotein I and induce endothelial activation. Arthritis Rheum 40 (1997) 551-561
20. Meroni P., Tincani A., Sepp N., et al. Endothelium and the brain in CNS lupus. Lupus 12 (2003) 919-928
21. Connor P., and Hunt B.J. Cerebral haemostasis and antiphospholipid antibodies. Lupus 12 (2003) 929-934
22. Sun K.H., Liu W.T., Tsai C.Y., et al. Inhibition of astrocyte proliferation and binding to brain tissue of anticardiolipin antibodies purified from lupus serum. Ann Rheum Dis 51 (1992) 707-712
23. Khalili A., and Cooper R.C. A study of immune responses to myelin and cardiolipin in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Clin Exp Immunol 85 (1991) 365-372
24. Katzav A., Chapman J., and Shoenfeld Y. CNS dysfunction in the antiphospholipid syndrome. Lupus 12 (2003) 903-907
25. Shoenfeld Y., Nahum A., Korczyn A.D., et al. Neuronal-binding antibodies from patients with antiphospholipid syndrome induce cognitive deficits following intrathecal passive transfer. Lupus 12 (2003) 436-442
26. Blank M., Krause I., Fridkin M., et al. Bacterial induction of autoantibodies to beta2-glycoprotein-I accounts for the infectious etiology of antiphospholipid syndrome. J Clin Invest 109 (2002) 797-804
27. Shrot S., Katzav A., Korczyn A.D., et al. Behavioral and cognitive deficits occur only after prolonged exposure of mice to antiphospholipid antibodies. Lupus 11 (2002) 736-743
28. Ziporen L., Polak-Charcon S., Korczyn D.A., et al. Neurological dysfunction associated with antiphospholipid syndrome: histopathological brain findings of thrombotic changes in a mouse model. Clin Dev Immunol 11 (2004) 67-75
29. Krnic-Barrie S., O'Connor C.R., Looney S.W., et al. A retrospective review of 61 patients with antiphospholipid syndrome. Analysis of factors influencing recurrent thrombosis. Arch Intern Med 157 (1997) 2101-2108
30. Shah N.M., Khamashta M.A., Atsumi T., et al. Outcome of patients with anticardiolipin antibodies: a 10 year follow-up of 52 patients. Lupus 7 (1998) 3-6
31. Sastre-Garriga J., and Montalban X. APS and the brain. Lupus 12 (2003) 877-882
32. Hilker R., Thiel A., Geisen C., et al. Cerebral blood flow and glucose metabolism in multi-infarct-dementia related to primary antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. Lupus 9 (2000) 311-316
33. Terashi H., Uchiyama S., Hashimoto S., et al. Clinical characteristics of stroke patients with antiphospholipid antibodies. Cerebrovasc Dis 19 (2005) 384-390
34. Asherson R.A., Khamashta M.A., Gil A., et al. Cerebrovascular disease and antiphospholipid antibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus, lupus-like disease, and the primary antiphospholipid syndrome. Am J Med 86 (1989) 391-399
35. Devinsky O., Petito C.K., and Alonso D.R. Clinical and neuropathological findings in systemic lupus erythematosus: the role of vasculitis, heart emboli, and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. Ann Neurol 23 (1988) 380-384
36. Ford S.E., Lillicrap D., Brunet D., et al. Thrombotic endocarditis and lupus anticoagulant. A pathogenetic possibility for idiopathic "rheumatic type" valvular heart disease. Arch Pathol Lab Med 113 (1989) 350-353
37. Nesher G., Ilany J., Rosenmann D., et al. Valvular dysfunction in antiphospholipid syndrome: prevalence, clinical features, and treatment. Semin Arthritis Rheum 27 (1997) 27-35
38. Khamashta M.A., Cervera R., Asherson R.A., et al. Association of antibodies against phospholipids with heart valve disease in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lancet 335 (1990) 1541-1544
39. Krause I., Lev S., Fraser A., et al. Close association between valvar heart disease and central nervous system manifestations in the antiphospholipid syndrome. Ann Rheum Dis 64 (2005) 1490-1493
40. Sanna G., Bertolaccini M.L., Cuadrado M.J., et al. Neuropsychiatric manifestations in systemic lupus erythematosus: prevalence and association with antiphospholipid antibodies. J Rheumatol 30 (2003) 985-992
41. Brey R.L., Hart R.G., Sherman D.G., et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies and cerebral ischemia in young people. Neurology 40 (1990) 1190-1196
42. Levine S.R., Deegan M.J., Futrell N., et al. Cerebrovascular and neurologic disease associated with antiphospholipid antibodies: 48 cases. Neurology 40 (1990) 1181-1189
43. Nencini P., Baruffi M.C., Abbate R., et al. Lupus anticoagulant and anticardiolipin antibodies in young adults with cerebral ischemia. Stroke 23 (1992) 189-193
44. The Antiphospholipid Antibodies in Stroke Study (APASS) Group. Anticardiolipin antibodies are an independent risk factor for first ischemic stroke. Neurology 43 (1993) 2069-2073
45. Camerlingo M., Casto L., Censori B., et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies in acute non-hemorrhagic stroke seen within six hours after onset. Acta Neurol Scand 92 (1995) 69-71
46. Levine S.R., Brey R.L., Sawaya K.L., et al. Recurrent stroke and thrombo-occlusive events in the antiphospholipid syndrome. Ann Neurol 38 (1995) 119-124
47. Tuhrim S., Rand J.H., Wu X.X., et al. Elevated anticardiolipin antibody titer is a stroke risk factor in a multiethnic population independent of isotype or degree of positivity. Stroke 30 (1999) 1561-1565
48. Zielinska J., Ryglewicz D., Wierzchowska E., et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies are an independent risk factor for ischemic stroke. Neurol Res 21 (1999) 653-657
49. Kenet G., Sadetzki S., Murad H., et al. Factor V Leiden and antiphospholipid antibodies are significant risk factors for ischemic stroke in children. Stroke 31 (2000) 1283-1288
50. Brey R.L., Abbott R.D., Curb J.D., et al. beta(2)-Glycoprotein 1-dependent anticardiolipin antibodies and risk of ischemic stroke and myocardial infarction: the Honolulu heart program. Stroke 32 (2001) 1701-1706
51. Brey R.L., Stallworth C.L., McGlasson D.L., et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies and stroke in young women. Stroke 33 (2002) 2396-2400
52. Janardhan V., Wolf P.A., Kase C.S., et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies and risk of ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack: the Framingham cohort and offspring study. Stroke 35 (2004) 736-741
53. Ginsburg K.S., Liang M.H., Newcomer L., et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies and the risk for ischemic stroke and venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med 117 (1992) 997-1002
54. Muir K.W., Squire I.B., Alwan W., et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies in an unselected stroke population. Lancet 344 (1994) 452-456
55. Montalban J., Rio J., Khamastha M., et al. Value of immunologic testing in stroke patients. A prospective multicenter study. Stroke 25 (1994) 2412-2415
56. Metz L.M., Edworthy S., Mydlarski R., et al. The frequency of phospholipid antibodies in an unselected stroke population. Can J Neurol Sci 25 (1998) 64-69
57. Ahmed E., Stegmayr B., Trifunovic J., et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies are not an independent risk factor for stroke: an incident case-referent study nested within the MONICA and Vasterbotten cohort project. Stroke 31 (2000) 1289-1293
58. Levine S.R., Salowich-Palm L., Sawaya K.L., et al. IgG anticardiolipin antibody titer >40 GPL and the risk of subsequent thrombo-occlusive events and death. A prospective cohort study. Stroke 28 (1997) 1660-1665
59. The Antiphospholipid Antibodies and Stroke Study Group (APASS). Anticardiolipin antibodies and the risk of recurrent thrombo-occlusive events and death. Neurology 48 (1997) 91-94
60. Levine S.R., Brey R.L., Tilley B.C., et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies and subsequent thrombo-occlusive events in patients with ischemic stroke. JAMA 291 (2004) 576-584
61. Ruiz-Irastorza G., Khamashta M.A., and Hughes G.R. Antiphospholipid antibodies and risk for recurrent vascular events. JAMA 291 (2004) 2701
62. Wahl D., Regnault V., de Moerloose P., et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies and risk for recurrent vascular events. JAMA 291 (2004) 2701-2702
63. Cabral A.R. Antiphospholipid antibodies and risk for recurrent vascular events. JAMA 291 (2004) 2701
64. Ruiz-Irastorza G., and Khamashta M.A. Stroke and antiphospholipid syndrome: the treatment debate. Rheumatology (Oxford) 44 (2005) 971-974
65. Galli M., Luciani D., Bertolini G., et al. Lupus anticoagulants are stronger risk factors for thrombosis than anticardiolipin antibodies in the antiphospholipid syndrome: a systematic review of the literature. Blood 101 (2003) 1827-1832
66. Lanthier S., Kirkham F.J., Mitchell L.G., et al. Increased anticardiolipin antibody IgG titers do not predict recurrent stroke or TIA in children. Neurology 62 (2004) 194-200
67. Hilton D.A., and Footitt D. Neuropathological findings in Sneddon's syndrome. Neurology 60 (2003) 1181-1182
68. Sneddon I.B. Cerebro-vascular lesions and livedo reticularis. Br J Dermatol 77 (1965) 180-185
69. Levine S.R., Langer S.L., Albers J.W., et al. Sneddon's syndrome: an antiphospholipid antibody syndrome?. Neurology 38 (1988) 798-800
70. Alegre V.A., Winkelmann R.K., and Gastineau D.A. Cutaneous thrombosis, cerebrovascular thrombosis, and lupus anticoagulant-the Sneddon syndrome. Report of 10 cases. Int J Dermatol 29 (1990) 45-49
71. Sinharay R. Sneddon's syndrome: additional neurological feature in antiphospholipid (Hughes') syndrome. Postgrad Med J 79 (2003) 550
72. Asherson R.A., and Cervera R. Unusual manifestations of the antiphospholipid syndrome. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 25 (2003) 61-78
73. Adair J.C., Digre K.B., Swanda R.M., et al. Sneddon's syndrome: a cause of cognitive decline in young adults. Neuropsychiatr Neuropsychol Behav Neurol 14 (2001) 197-204
74. Frances C., and Piette J.C. The mystery of Sneddon syndrome: relationship with antiphospholipid syndrome and systemic lupus erythematosus. J Autoimmun 15 (2000) 139-143
75. Kalashnikova L.A., Nasonov E.L., Kushekbaeva A.E., et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies in Sneddon's syndrome. Neurology 40 (1990) 464-467
76. Toubi E., Krause I., Fraser A., et al. Livedo reticularis is a marker for predicting multi-system thrombosis in antiphospholipid syndrome. Clin Exp Rheumatol 23 (2005) 499-504
77. Briley D.P., Coull B.M., and Goodnight Jr. S.H. Neurological disease associated with antiphospholipid antibodies. Ann Neurol 25 (1989) 221-227
78. Schoning M., Klein R., Krageloh-Mann I., et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies in cerebrovascular ischemia and stroke in childhood. Neuropediatrics 25 (1994) 8-14
79. Takanashi J., Sugita K., Miyazato S., et al. Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome in childhood strokes. Pediatr Neurol 13 (1995) 323-326
80. Booth F., Yanofsky R., Ross I.B., et al. Primary antiphospholipid syndrome with moyamoya-like vascular changes. Pediatr Neurosurg 31 (1999) 45-48
81. Bonduel M., Sciuccati G., Hepner M., et al. Prethrombotic disorders in children with arterial ischemic stroke and sinovenous thrombosis. Arch Neurol 56 (1999) 967-971
82. Bakdash T., Cohen A.R., Hempel J.M., et al. Moyamoya, dystonia during hyperventilation, and antiphospholipid antibodies. Pediatr Neurol 26 (2002) 157-160
83. Yamashita Y., Kusaga A., Koga Y., et al. Noonan syndrome, moyamoya-like vascular changes, and antiphospholipid syndrome. Pediatr Neurol 31 (2004) 364-366
84. Carhuapoma J.R., Mitsias P., and Levine S.R. Cerebral venous thrombosis and anticardiolipin antibodies. Stroke 28 (1997) 2363-2369
85. Levine S.R., Kieran S., Puzio K., et al. Cerebral venous thrombosis with lupus anticoagulants. Report of two cases. Stroke 18 (1987) 801-804
86. Provenzale J.M., and Loganbill H.A. Dural sinus thrombosis and venous infarction associated with antiphospholipid antibodies: MR findings. J Comput Assist Tomogr 18 (1994) 719-723
87. Camaiti A., Del Rosso A., Checcucci D., et al. Venous dural sinus thrombosis in a middle-aged woman with anticardiolipin antibodies. Acta Neurol Belg 95 (1995) 92-95
88. Daif A., Awada A., al-Rajeh S., et al. Cerebral venous thrombosis in adults. A study of 40 cases from Saudi Arabia. Stroke 26 (1995) 1193-1195
89. Boggild M.D., Sedhev R.V., Fraser D., et al. Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis and antiphospholipid antibodies. Postgrad Med J 71 (1995) 487-489
90. Deschiens M.A., Conard J., Horellou M.H., et al. Coagulation studies, factor V Leiden, and anticardiolipin antibodies in 40 cases of cerebral venous thrombosis. Stroke 27 (1996) 1724-1730
91. Herranz M.T., Rivier G., Khamashta M.A., et al. Association between antiphospholipid antibodies and epilepsy in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 37 (1994) 568-571
92. Toubi E., Khamashta M.A., Panarra A., et al. Association of antiphospholipid antibodies with central nervous system disease in systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Med 99 (1995) 397-401
93. Verrot D., San-Marco M., Dravet C., et al. Prevalence and signification of antinuclear and anticardiolipin antibodies in patients with epilepsy. Am J Med 103 (1997) 33-37
94. Shrivastava A., Dwivedi S., Aggarwal A., et al. Anti-cardiolipin and anti-beta2 glycoprotein I antibodies in Indian patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: association with the presence of seizures. Lupus 10 (2001) 45-50
95. Gibbs III J.W., and Husain A.M. Epilepsy associated with lupus anticoagulant. Seizure 11 (2002) 207-209
96. Appenzeller S., Cendes F., and Costallat L.T. Epileptic seizures in systemic lupus erythematosus. Neurology 63 (2004) 1808-1812
97. Mackworth-Young C.G., and Hughes G.R.V. Epilepsy: an early symptom of systemic lupus erythematosus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 48 (1985) 185
98. Inzelberg R., and Korczyn A.D. Lupus anticoagulant and the late onset seizures. Acta Neurol Scand 79 (1989) 114-118
99. Echaniz-Laguna A., Thiriaux A., Ruolt-Olivesi I., et al. Lupus anticoagulant induced by the combination of valproate and lamotrigine. Epilepsia 40 (1999) 1661-1663
100. Peltola J.T., Haapala A., Isojarvi J.I., et al. Antiphospholipid and antinuclear antibodies in patients with epilepsy or new-onset seizure disorders. Am J Med 109 (2000) 712-717
101. Eriksson K., Peltola J., Keranen T., et al. High prevalence of antiphospholipid antibodies in children with epilepsy: a controlled study of 50 cases. Epilepsy Res 46 (2001) 129-137
102. Ranua J., Luoma K., Peltola J., et al. Anticardiolipin and antinuclear antibodies in epilepsy-a population-based cross-sectional study. Epilepsy Res 58 (2004) 13-18
103. Cocito L., Favale E., and Reni L. Epileptic seizures in cerebral arterial occlusive disease. Stroke 13 (1982) 189-195
104. Liou H.H., Wang C.R., Chou H.C., et al. Anticardiolipin antisera from lupus patients with seizures reduce a GABA receptor-mediated chloride current in snail neurons. Life Sci 54 (1994) 1119-1125
105. Chapman J., Cohen-Armon M., Shoenfeld Y., et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies permeabilize and depolarize brain synaptoneurosomes. Lupus 8 (1999) 127-133
106. Kent M., Alvarez F., Vogt E., et al. Monoclonal antiphosphatidylserine antibodies react directly with feline and murine central nervous system. J Rheumatol 24 (1997) 1725-1733
107. Kent M.N., Alvarez F.J., Ng A.K., et al. Ultrastructural localization of monoclonal antiphospholipid antibody binding to rat brain. Exp Neurol 163 (2000) 173-179
108. Liou H.H., Wang C.R., Chen C.J., et al. Elevated levels of anticardiolipin antibodies and epilepsy in lupus patients. Lupus 5 (1996) 307-312
109. Mikdashi J., and Handwerger B. Predictors of neuropsychiatric damage in systemic lupus erythematosus: data from the Maryland lupus cohort. Rheumatology (Oxford) 43 (2004) 1555-1560
110. Karassa F.B., Ioannidis J.P., Boki K.A., et al. Predictors of clinical outcome and radiologic progression in patients with neuropsychiatric manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Med 109 (2000) 628-634
111. Lampropoulos C.E., Koutroumanidis M., Reynolds P.P., et al. Electroencephalography in the assessment of neuropsychiatric manifestations in antiphospholipid syndrome and systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 52 (2005) 841-846
112. Cuadrado M.J., Khamashta M.A., and Hughes G.R. Sticky blood and headache. Lupus 10 (2001) 392-393
113. Cuadrado M.J., and Sanna G. Headache and systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 12 (2003) 943-946
114. Montalban J., Cervera R., Font J., et al. Lack of association between anticardiolipin antibodies and migraine in systemic lupus erythematosus. Neurology 42 (1992) 681-682
115. Tietjen G.E., Day M., Norris L., et al. Role of anticardiolipin antibodies in young persons with migraine and transient focal neurologic events: a prospective study. Neurology 50 (1998) 1433-1440
116. Markus H.S., and Hopkinson N. Migraine and headache in systemic lupus erythematosus and their relationship with antibodies against phospholipids. J Neurol 239 (1992) 39-42
117. Rozell C.L., Sibbitt Jr. W.L., and Brooks W.M. Structural and neurochemical markers of brain injury in the migraine diathesis of systemic lupus erythematosus. Cephalalgia 18 (1998) 209-215
118. Hogan M.J., Brunet D.G., Ford P.M., et al. Lupus anticoagulant, antiphospholipid antibodies and migraine. Can J Neurol Sci 15 (1988) 420-425
119. Iniguez C., Pascual C., Pardo A., et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies in migraine. Headache 31 (1991) 666-668
120. Hering R., Couturier E.G., Steiner T.J., et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies in migraine. Cephalalgia 11 (1991) 19-21
121. Tsakiris D.A., Kappos L., Reber G., et al. Lack of association between antiphospholipid antibodies and migraine. Thromb Haemost 69 (1993) 415-417
122. Robbins L. Migraine and anticardiolipin antibodies-case reports of 13 patients, and the prevalence of antiphospholipid antibodies in migraineurs. Headache 31 (1991) 537-539
123. Verrotti A., Cieri F., Pelliccia P., et al. Lack of association between antiphospholipid antibodies and migraine in children. Int J Clin Lab Res 30 (2000) 109-111
124. Asherson R.A., Derksen R.H., Harris E.N., et al. Chorea in systemic lupus erythematosus and "lupus-like" disease: association with antiphospholipid antibodies. Semin Arthritis Rheum 16 (1987) 253-259
125. Khamashta M.A., Gil A., Anciones B., et al. Chorea in systemic lupus erythematosus: association with antiphospholipid antibodies. Ann Rheum Dis 47 (1988) 681-683
126. Asherson R.A., and Hughes G.R.V. Antiphospholipid antibodies and chorea. J Rheumatol 15 (1988) 377-379
127. Cervera R., Asherson R.A., Font J., et al. Chorea in the antiphospholipid syndrome. Clinical, radiologic, and immunologic characteristics of 50 patients from our clinics and the recent literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 76 (1997) 203-212
128. Milanov I.G., Rashkov R., Baleva M., et al. Antiphospholipid syndrome and parkinsonism. Clin Exp Rheumatol 16 (1998) 623-624
129. Milanov I., and Bogdanova D. Antiphospholipid syndrome and dystonia-parkinsonism. A case report. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 7 (2001) 139-141
130. Reiblat T., Polishchuk I., Dorodnikov E., et al. Primary antiphospholipid antibody syndrome masquerading as progressive supranuclear palsy. Lupus 12 (2003) 67-69
131. Adhiyaman V., Meara R.J., and Bhowmick B.K. Antiphospholipid syndrome and dystonia-parkinsonism: need for anticoagulation. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 8 (2002) 215
132. Scott T.F., Hess D., and Brillman J. Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome mimicking multiple sclerosis clinically and by magnetic resonance imaging. Arch Intern Med 154 (1994) 917-920
133. Ijdo J., Conti-Kelly A.M., Greco P., et al. Anti-phospholipid antibodies in patients with multiple sclerosis and MS-like illnesses: MS or APS?. Lupus 8 (1999) 109-115
134. Tourbah A., Clapin A., Gout O., et al. Systemic autoimmune features and multiple sclerosis: a 5-year follow-up study. Arch Neurol 55 (1998) 517-521
135. Sastre-Garriga J., Reverter J.C., Font J., et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies are not a useful screening tool in a nonselected large group of patients with multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol 49 (2001) 408-411
136. Heinzlef O., Weill B., Johanet C., et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies in patients with multiple sclerosis do not represent a subgroup of patients according to clinical, familial, and biological characteristics. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 72 (2002) 647-649
137. Figved N., Klevan G., Myhr K.M., et al. Neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with multiple sclerosis. Acta Psychiatr Scand 112 (2005) 463-468
138. Diaz-Olavarrieta C., Cummings J.L., Velazquez J., et al. Neuropsychiatric manifestations of multiple sclerosis. J Neuropsychiatr Clin Neurosci 11 (1999) 51-57
139. Nortvedt M.W., Riise T., Myhr K.M., et al. Quality of life as a predictor for change in disability in MS. Neurology 55 (2000) 51-54
140. Ferreira S., D'Cruz D.P., and Hughes G.R. Multiple sclerosis, neuropsychiatric lupus and antiphospholipid syndrome: where do we stand?. Rheumatology (Oxford) 44 (2005) 434-442
141. Paran D., Chapman J., Korczyn A.D., et al. Evoked potential studies in the antiphospholipid syndrome: differential diagnosis from multiple sclerosis. Ann Rheum Dis 65 (2006) 525-528
142. Kim J.H., Lee S.I., Park S.I., et al. Recurrent transverse myelitis in primary antiphospholipid syndrome-case report and literature review. Rheumatol Int 24 (2004) 244-246
143. Alarcon-Segovia D., Deleze M., Oria C.V., et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies and the antiphospholipid syndrome in systemic lupus erythematosus. A prospective analysis of 500 consecutive patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 68 (1989) 353-365
144. Lavalle C., Pizarro S., Drenkard C., et al. Transverse myelitis: a manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus strongly associated with antiphospholipid antibodies. J Rheumatol 17 (1990) 34-37
145. Kovacs B., Lafferty T.L., Brent L.H., et al. Transverse myelopathy in systemic lupus erythematosus: an analysis of 14 cases and review of the literature. Ann Rheum Dis 59 (2000) 120-124
146. D'Cruz D.P., Mellor-Pita S., Joven B., et al. Transverse myelitis as the first manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus or lupus-like disease: good functional outcome and relevance of antiphospholipid antibodies. J Rheumatol 31 (2004) 280-285
147. Falcini F., Taccetti G., Trapani S., et al. Primary antiphospholipid syndrome: a report of two pediatric cases. J Rheumatol 18 (1991) 1085-1087
148. Orefice G., De Joanna G., Coppola M., et al. Benign intracranial hypertension: a non-thrombotic complication of the primary antiphospholipid syndrome?. Lupus 4 (1995) 324-326
149. Sussman J., Leach M., Greaves M., et al. Potentially prothrombotic abnormalities of coagulation in benign intracranial hypertension. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 62 (1997) 229-233
150. Leker R.R., and Steiner I. Anticardiolipin antibodies are frequently present in patients with idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Arch Neurol 55 (1998) 817-820
151. Kesler A., Ellis M.H., Reshef T., et al. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension and anticardiolipin antibodies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 68 (2000) 379-380
152. Hisashi K., Komune S., Taira T., et al. Anticardiolipin antibody-induced sudden profound sensorineural hearing loss. Am J Otolaryngol 14 (1993) 275-277
153. Casoli P., and Tumiati B. Cogan's syndrome: a new possible complication of antiphospholipid antibodies?. Clin Rheumatol 14 (1995) 197-198
154. Tumiati B., and Casoli P. Sudden sensorineural hearing loss and anticardiolipin antibody. Am J Otolaryngol 16 (1995) 220
155. Toubi E., Ben-David J., Kessel A., et al. Autoimmune aberration in sudden sensorineural hearing loss: association with anti-cardiolipin antibodies. Lupus 6 (1997) 540-542
156. Naarendorp M., and Spiera H. Sudden sensorineural hearing loss in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus or lupus-like syndromes and antiphospholipid antibodies. J Rheumatol 25 (1998) 589-592
157. Green L., and Miller E.B. Sudden sensorineural hearing loss as a first manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus: association with anticardiolipin antibodies. Clin Rheumatol 20 (2001) 220-222
158. Gilburd B., Stein M., Tomer Y., et al. Autoantibodies to phospholipids and brain extract in patients with the Guillain-Barre syndrome: cross-reactive or pathogenic?. Autoimmunity 16 (1993) 23-27
159. Montalban J., Arboix A., Staub H., et al. Transient global amnesia and antiphospholipid syndrome. Clin Exp Rheumatol 7 (1989) 85-87
160. Brey R.L., Gharavi A.E., and Lockshin M.D. Neurologic complications of antiphospholipid antibodies. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 19 (1993) 833-850
161. Durrani O.M., Gordon C., and Murray P.I. Primary anti-phospholipid antibody syndrome (APS): current concepts. Surv Ophthalmol 47 (2002) 215-238
162. Reino S., Munoz-Rodriguez F.J., Cervera R., et al. Optic neuropathy in the "primary" antiphospholipid syndrome: report of a case and review of the literature. Clin Rheumatol 16 (1997) 629-631
163. Giorgi D., Gabrieli C.B., and Bonomo L. The clinical-ophtalmological spectrum of antiphospholipid syndrome. Ocul Immunol Inflamm 6 (1998) 269-273
164. Frohman L., Turbin R., Bielory L., et al. Autoimmune optic neuropathy with anticardiolipin antibody mimicking multiple sclerosis in a child. Am J Ophthalmol 136 (2003) 358-360
165. Papais-Alvarenga R.M., Miranda-Santos C.M., Puccioni-Sohler M., et al. Optic neuromyelitis syndrome in Brazilian patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 73 (2002) 429-435
166. Wiechens B., Schroder J.O., Potzsch B., et al. Primary antiphospholipid antibody syndrome and retinal occlusive vasculopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 123 (1997) 848-850
167. Au A., and O'Day J. Review of severe vaso-occlusive retinopathy in systemic lupus erythematosus and the antiphospholipid syndrome: associations, visual outcomes, complications and treatment. Clin Exp Ophthalmol 32 (2004) 87-100
168. Uthman I., Najjar D.M., Kanj S.S., et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies in acute multifocal posterior placoid pigment epitheliopathy. Ann Rheum Dis 62 (2003) 687-688
169. Ainiala H., Loukkola J., Peltola J., et al. The prevalence of neuropsychiatric syndromes in systemic lupus erythematosus. Neurology 57 (2001) 496-500
170. Brey R.L., Holliday S.L., Saklad A.R., et al. Neuropsychiatric syndromes in lupus: prevalence using standardized definitions. Neurology 58 (2002) 1214-1220
171. Loukkola J., Laine M., Ainiala H., et al. Cognitive impairment in systemic lupus erythematosus and neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus: a population-based neuropsychological study. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 25 (2003) 145-151
172. Afeltra A., Garzia P., Mitterhofer A.P., et al. Neuropsychiatric lupus syndromes: relationship with antiphospholipid antibodies. Neurology 61 (2003) 108-110
173. Hanly J.G., McCurdy G., Fougere L., et al. Neuropsychiatric events in systemic lupus erythematosus: attribution and clinical significance. J Rheumatol 31 (2004) 2156-2162
174. Hanly J.G., Walsh N.M., Fisk J.D., et al. Cognitive impairment and autoantibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus. Br J Rheumatol 32 (1993) 291-296
175. Denburg S.D., Carbotte R.M., Ginsberg J.S., et al. The relationship of antiphospholipid antibodies to cognitive function in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 3 (1997) 377-386
176. Hanly J.G., Hong C., Smith S., et al. A prospective analysis of cognitive function and anticardiolipin antibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 42 4 (1999) 728-734
177. Menon S., Jameson-Shortall E., Newman S.P., et al. A longitudinal study of anticardiolipin antibody levels and cognitive functioning in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 42 (1999) 735-741
178. Caronti B., Calderaro C., Alessandri C., et al. Serum anti-beta2-glycoprotein I antibodies from patients with antiphospholipid antibody syndrome bind central nervous system cells. J Autoimmun 11 (1998) 425-429
179. Katzav A., Pick C.G., Korczyn A.D., et al. Hyperactivity in a mouse model of the antiphospholipid syndrome. Lupus 10 (2001) 496-499
180. Hughes G., Cuadrado M., Khamashta M., et al. Headache and memory loss: rapid response to heparin in the antiphospholipid syndrome. Lupus 10 (2001) 778
181. Kushner M., and Simonian N. Lupus anticoagulants, anticardiolipin antibodies, and cerebral ischemia. Stroke 20 (1989) 225-229
182. Montalban J., Fernandez J., Arderiu A., et al. Multi-infarct dementia associated with antiphospholipid antibodies. Presentation of 2 cases. Med Clin (Barc) 93 (1989) 424-426
183. Kurita A., Hasunuma T., Mochio S., et al. A young case with multi-infarct dementia associated with lupus anticoagulant. Intern Med 33 (1994) 373-375
184. Mosek A., Yust I., Treves T.A., et al. Dementia and antiphospholipid antibodies. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 11 (2000) 36-38
185. Chapman J., Abu-Katash M., Inzelberg R., et al. Prevalence and clinical features of dementia associated with the antiphospholipid syndrome and circulating anticoagulants. J Neurol Sci 203-204 (2002) 81-84
186. Schwartz M., Rochas M., Weller B., et al. High association of anticardiolipin antibodies with psychosis. J Clin Psychiatry 59 (1998) 20-23
187. Bodani M., and Kopelman M.D. A psychiatric perspective on the therapy of psychosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 12 (2003) 947-949
188. Sanna G., Piga M., Terryberry J.W., et al. Central nervous system involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus: cerebral imaging and serological profile in patients with and without overt neuropsychiatric manifestations. Lupus 9 (2000) 573-583
189. Vermeer S.E., Den Heijer T., Koudstaal P.J., et al. Incidence and risk factors of silent brain infarcts in the population-based Rotterdam Scan Study. Stroke 34 (2003) 392-396
190. Vermeer S.E., Prins N.D., den Heijer T., et al. Silent brain infarcts and the risk of dementia and cognitive decline. N Engl J Med 348 (2003) 1215-1222
191. Steens S.C., Bosma G.P., Steup-Beekman G.M., et al. Association between microscopic brain damage as indicated by magnetization transfer imaging and anticardiolipin antibodies in neuropsychiatric lupus. Arthritis Res Ther 8 (2006) R38
192. Kao C.H., Lan J.L., Hsieh J.F., et al. Evaluation of regional cerebral blood flow with 99mTc-HMPAO in primary antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. J Nucl Med 40 (1999) 1446-1450
193. Romanowicz G., Lass P., Koseda-Dragan M., et al. Technetium-99mTc-HMPAO brain SPECT in antiphospholipid syndrome-preliminary data. Nucl Med Rev Cent East Eur 3 (2000) 17-20
194. Tokumaru S., Yoshikai T., Uchino A., et al. Technetium-99m-ECD SPECT in antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: a drastic improvement in brain perfusion by antiplatelet therapy. Eur Radiol 11 (2001) 2611-2615
195. Chen J.J., Shiau Y.C., Wang J.J., et al. Abnormal regional cerebral blood flow in primary antiphospholipid antibody syndrome patients with normal magnetic resonance imaging findings. A preliminary report. Scand J Rheumatol 31 (2002) 89-93
196. Sun S.S., Liu F.Y., Tsai J.J., et al. Using 99mTc HMPAO brain SPECT to evaluate the effects of anticoagulant therapy on regional cerebral blood flow in primary antiphospholipid antibody syndrome patients with brain involvement-a preliminary report. Rheumatol Int 23 (2003) 301-304
197. Sanna G., Bertolaccini M.L., and Mathieu A. Central nervous system lupus: a clinical approach to therapy. Lupus 12 (2003) 935-942
198. Khamashta M.A., Cuadrado M.J., Mujic F., et al. The management of thrombosis in the antiphospholipid-antibody syndrome. N Engl J Med 332 (1995) 993-997
199. Ruiz-Irastorza G., Khamashta M.A., Hunt B.J., et al. Bleeding and recurrent thrombosis in definite antiphospholipid syndrome: analysis of a series of 66 patients treated with oral anticoagulation to a target international normalized ratio of 3.5. Arch Intern Med 162 (2002) 1164-1169
200. Cuadrado M.J., Sanna G., Sharief M., et al. Double blind, crossover, randomised trial comparing low molecular weight heparin versus placebo in the treatment of chronic headache in patients with antiphospholipid antibodies. Arthritis Rheum 48 (2003) S364 [abstract]